Полная версия:
Империя, колония, геноцид. Завоевания, оккупация и сопротивление покоренных в мировой истории
51
Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, 1991).
52
Raphael Lemkin, «The Concept of Genocide in Anthropology» LCNYPL, Box 2, Folder 2. He cited Bronislaw Malinowski, A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays (Chapel Hill, NC, 1944); Arthur Toynbee, A Study of History (London, 1947); Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (London, 1935); Leo Louis Snyder, Race: A History of Modern Ethnic Theories (New York, 1939); Herbert Seligmann, Race Against Man (New York, 1939).
53
Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, 17.
54
Lemkin, «The Concept of Genocide in Anthropology»
55
C. R. Whittaker, «The Western Phoenicians: Colonisation and Assimilation» Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society CC (1974): 77–78.
56
Paul T. Cocks, «The King and I: Bronislaw Malinowski, King Sobhuza II of Swaziland and the Vision of Culture Change in Africa» History of the Human Sciences 13, no. 4 (2000): 25–47.
57
Анализ различных направлений британского антиимпериализма см. в книге: Bernard Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa 1895–1914 (London, 1968).
58
Raphael Lemkin, «The Germans in Africa» JRMCAJA, Collection 60, Box 6, Folder 9. Взгляды Лемкина были схожи со взглядами левых критиков немецкого колониализма в имперской Германии. Они выступали не против колониального правления как такового, а против его злоупотреблений. О подобной критике см. в книге: Helmut Walser Smith, «The Talk of Genocide, the Rhetoric of Miscegenation: Notes on Debates in the German Reichstag Concerning Southwest Africa, 1904–14» in The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy, ed. Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantorp (Ann Arbor, 1998), 107–123.
59
Memorandum from Raphael Lemkin to R. Kempner, 5 June 1946. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, R. Kempner Papers (RS 71.001). Я благодарю Юргена Маттеуса за то, что он обратил мое внимание на этот документ.
60
Слово «этос» греческого происхождения и имеет несколько значений: обычай, характер, поведение, образ мыслей. – Примеч. ред.
61
Raphael Lemkin, «The Concept of Genocide in Anthropology».
62
Там же.
63
Raphael Lemkin, «Memorandum on the Genocide Convention» AHJS, P-154, Box 6, Folder 5. Representative of this misunderstanding is Helen Fein, Genocide: A Sociological Perspective (London, 1993), 9–11.
64
William A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (Cambridge, 2000), 179–85.
65
McDonnell and Moses, «Raphael Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas»
66
Lemkin, Axis Rule, 80. Выделение добавлено.
67
Lemkin, «Memorandum on the Genocide Convention» Я исправил написанное им слово «proceeded». Поскольку нападки на культурные символы были частью общей атаки, «там, где культурный геноцид представляется всего лишь шагом к физическому истреблению, безусловно, не составит труда отличить его от диффузии». Lemkin, «The Concept of Genocide in Anthropology».
68
Raphael Lemkin, Raphael Lemkin’s Thoughts on Nazi Genocide: Not Guilty?, ed. by Steven L. Jacobs (Lewiston, New York, 1990), 299, 303. См. книгу: Robert Bevan, The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War (London, 2006), где приводится аргумент, подчеркивающий, что разрушение зданий – это указатель на этнические чистки и геноцид.
69
Я использую термин Патрика Вулфа «тотальная культурная практика», который он сам перенял у Марселя Мауса, писавшего о «тотальных социальных явлениях»: Patrick Wolfe, «On Being Woken Up: The Dream Time in Anthropology and in Australian Settler Culture» Comparative Studies in Society and History 33, no. 2 (1992): 198.
70
Raphael Lemkin, «The Concept of Genocide in Sociology» JRMCAJA, Collection 60, Box 6, Folder 13, 1.
71
Raphael Lemkin, «Description of the Project» LCNYPL, Reel 3, Box 2, Folder 1.
72
Это обсуждение восьми методов взято из книги Lemkin, Axis Rule, 82–90. Лемкин, вероятно, не думал о «микрофизике колониального правления», которую постколониальные историки раскрыли в своих исследованиях интимных сфер колониализма. Ср.: Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, CA, 2002).
73
Цитируется в: Porter, Critics of Empire, 22. Cf. Elizabeth Elbourne, «The Sin of the Settler: The 1835–36 Select Committee on Aborigines and Debates Over Virtue and Conquest in Early Nineteenth-Century British White Settler Empire» Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 4, no. 3 (2003).
74
Patrick Dodson, «Short-Term Fix Demeans Nation: We Have Proved Incapable of Confronting Our Past» The Australian, 26 May 2006. On Dodson, see Kevin Keeffe, Paddy’s Road: Life Stories of Patrick Dodson (Canberra, 2003). Отчет «Вернуть их домой» и различные стратегии «изъятия» детей коренных австралийцев смешанного происхождения у матерей из числа коренного населения рассматриваются в главах Robert Manne, Anna Haebich, and Russell McGregor in Moses, Genocide and Settler Society.
75
Robert van Krieken, «Rethinking Cultural Genocide: Aboriginal Child Removal and Settler-Colonial State Formation» Oceania 7, no. 2 (2005): 125–151. Важное исследование французской практики ассимиляции в ранний современный период см. в: Saliha Belmessous, «Assimilation and Racialism in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century French Colonial Policy» American Historical Review 110, no. 2 (2005): 322–349.
76
Raphael Lemkin, «Memorandum on the Genocide Convention» AHJS, P-154, Box 6, Folder 5. Я исправил в тексте Лемкина написание слова «disapproved».
77
Raphael Lemkin, «Genocide as Crime under International Law» United Nations Bulletin 15 (January 1948): 71.
78
Matthew Lippman, «The Drafting of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide» Boston University International Law Journal 3, no. 1 (1985): 45.
79
Об этом дискурсе см.: Maximilian C. Forte, «Extinction: The Historical Trope of Anti-Indigeneity in the Caribbean» Issues in Caribbean Amerindian Studies 6, no. 4 (August 2004 – August 2005); Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 (Ithaca, New York, 2003); John W. Burton, «Disappearing Savages? Thoughts on the Construction of an Anthropological Conundrum» Journal of African and African Studies 34, no. 2 (1999): 199–209.
80
Туземец, абориген. – Примеч. ред.
81
Ronald Robinson, «Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration» in Studies in the Theory of Imperialism, ed. by Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe (London, 1972), 117–141; Geir Lundestad, «Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952» Journal of Peace Research 23, no. 3 (1986): 263–277.
82
Mahmood Mamdani, «Historicizing Power and Responses to Power: Indirect Rule and Its Reform» Social Research 66, no. 3 (1999): 859–86; Leroy Vail, «Introduction: Ethnicity in Southern African History» in The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, ed. Leroy Vail (Berkeley, 1989), 1–19; C.S. L. Chachage, «British Rule and African Civilization in Tanganyika» Journal of Historical Sociology 1, no. 2 (1988): 199–223; Archie Mafeje, «The Ideology of ‘Tribalism’» Journal of Modern African Studies 9, no. 2 (1971): 253–61; cf. Michael Crowder, «Indirect Rule: French and British Style» Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 34, no. 3 (1964): 197–205.
83
Dominik J. Schaller, «Raphael Lemkin’s View of European Colonial Rule in Africa: Between Condemnation and Admiration» Journal of Genocide Research 7, no. 4 (2005): 534; Tess Lea, Emma Kowal, and Gillian Cowlishaw, eds., Moving Anthropology: Critical Indigenous Studies (Darwin, 2006).
84
Frederic W. Gleach, Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia: A Confl ict of Cultures (Lincoln, Neb., 1997); Jean M. O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (Cambridge, 1997); Noenoe K. Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism (Durham, NC, 2004).
85
Memorandum from Raphael Lemkin to R. Kempner, 5 June 1946. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, R. Kempner Papers (RS 71.001). Я исправил орфографию и пунктуацию в этой цитате.
86
Raphael Lemkin, «Yucatan» AJHS, P-154, Box 8, Folder 12. Выделение добавлено.
87
Lemkin, Axis Rule, 79; cf. Steven T. Katz, The Holocaust in Historical Context (Oxford, 1994).
88
Raphael Lemkin, «Incas» JRMCAJA, Collection 60, Box 7, Folder 7/1.
89
Lemkin, «Yucatan».
90
Там же. О теории универсальной монархии см. в Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain, and France, c. 1500–1800 (New Haven, CT, 1995), chap. 2.
91
Raphael Lemkin, «Aztecs» AJHS, P-154, Box 8, Folder 12.
92
Lemkin, «Yucatan».
93
John Locke, Two Treatises on Civil Government (London, 1884), 196–197 [para. 2:11]. Выделение добавлено. Анализ английского восприятия испанских дебатов о колониализме см. в: Andrew Fitzmaurice, Humanism and America (Cambridge, 2003).
94
Lemkin, «Aztecs.» Его исследовательские заметки о конфликтах и массовых убийствах коренных жителей Северной Америки начинаются с какого-то восстания индейцев.
95
Lemkin, Thoughts on Nazi Genocide, 196–197.
96
See McDonnell and Moses, «Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas».
97
Richard Broome, Aboriginal Victorians (Sydney, 2005), 84.
98
Косвенный умысел (лат.) – юридический термин. – Примеч. ред.
99
Lemkin, «The Concept of Genocide in Sociology» 2.
100
Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings, 9.
101
Я обсуждаю природу этой теодицеи в работе A. Dirk Moses, «Conceptual Blockages and Defi nitional Dilemmas in the Racial Century: Genocide of Indigenous Peoples and the Holocaust» Patterns of Prejudice 36, no. 2 (2002): 7–36.
102
Цитируется в Patrick Brantlinger, «Forgetting Genocide: or the Last of the Last of the Mohicans» Cultural Studies 12, no. 1 (1998): 19–20.
103
См. в этой книге главы Джона Докера и Энн Куртхойс, в которых приводятся аргументы в пользу того, что такое согласие с уничтожением коренного населения равносильно геноциду.
104
Mark Drumbl, «Prosecutor v Radislav Krstic: ICTY Authenticates Genocide at Srebrenica and Convicts for Aiding and Abetting» Melbourne Journal of International Law 5, no. 2 (2004): 434–450.
105
Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, 21–22. Выделено в оригинале.
106
Raphael Lemkin, «Hitler Case-Outline» Jacob Rader Marcus Center of the American Jewish Archives, Collection 60, Box 7, Folders 12 and 13. Я исправил орфографию в этой цитате. Спасибо Стивену Л. Джейкобсу и Дэну Стоуну за предоставленную копию. Комментарий см. в: Dan Stone, «Raphael Lemkin on the Holocaust» Journal of Genocide Research 7, no. 4 (2005): 539–550.
107
Lemkin, «Hitler Case-Outline»
108
Kirkpatrick, British Colonization and Empire, 5–6.
109
Anthony Pagden, Peoples and Empires: Europeans and the Rest of the World from Antiquity to the Present (London, 2001), 8–10.
110
Anthony Pagden, «Fellow Citizens and Imperial Subjects: Conquest and Sovereignty in Europe’s Overseas Empires» History and Theory 44 (December 2005): 28–34; Peter C. Perdue, «Comparing Empires: Manchu Colonialism» International History Review 20, no. 2 (1998): 255–61.
111
См. подробное обсуждение в книге Ronald Grigor Suny, «The Empire Strikes Out: Imperial Russia, ‘National’ Identity, and Theories of Empire» in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (Oxford, 2001), 23–66; а также Ross Hutchings, «Empire and the State: a Critical Theoretical Assessment» Australian Journal of International Affairs 60, no 3 (2006): 429–38. Я оставляю в стороне вопрос о причинах империализма, изложенных в марксистских теориях.
112
James W. Long, From Privileged to Dispossessed: The Volga Germans, 1860–1917 (Lincoln and London, 1988); Eric Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I (Cambridge, MA, 2003).
113
Edward Said, The Question of Palestine (New York, 1979), 78; Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, New York, 1986), 31.
114
Gosden, Archaeology and Colonialism, 5. Cf. Young, Postcolonialism.
115
Ronald J. Horvath, «A Defi nition of Colonialism» Current Anthropology 13, no. 1 (1972): 45–51; Herbert Lüthy, «Colonization and the Making of Mankind» Journal of Economic History 21 (1961): 483–495.
116
Frederick Cooper, «Empire Multiplied: A Review Essay» Comparative Studies in Society and History 46, no. 2 (2004): 247.
117
Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Introduction, trans. by Shelley L. Frisch (Princeton, NJ, 1997), 15. Ср.: D.K. Fieldhouse, который гораздо менее критичен к европейскому колониальному правлению, но близок к этому определению: Fieldhouse, Colonialism 1870–1945: An Introduction (London, 1983), 12–15.
118
Peter Calvert, «Internal Colonisation, Development and Environment» Third World Quarterly 22, no. 1 (2001): 51–63; Donald Bloxham, «Internal Colonization, Inter-Imperial Confl ict, and the Armenian Genocide» в этой книге.
119
Alvin W. Gouldner, «Stalinism: A Study in Internal Colonialism» Telos, no. 34 (1978): 5–48; David Goodman, «Guizhou and the People’s Republic of China: The Development of an Internal Colony» in Internal Colonialism: Essays around a Theme, Monograph No. 3, Developing Areas Research Group, Institute of British Geographers, ed. David Drakakis-Smith and Stephen Wyn Williams (Edinburgh, 1983), 107–128.
120
Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536–1966 (London, 1975); Mervyn C. Hartwig, «Capitalism and Aborigines: The Theory of Internal Colonialism and its Rivals», in Essays in the Political Economy of Australian Capitalism, 4 vols., ed. Edward L. Wheelwright and Ken Buckley (Sydney, 1978), 3: 119–141; Ethnic and Racial Studies 2, no. 3 (1979) special issue on internal colonialism; Colin W. Mettam and Stephen Wyn Williams, «Internal Colonialism and Cultural Divisions of Labour in the Soviet Republic of Estonia», Nations and Nationalism 4, no. 3 (1998): 363–388.
121
Steven Harrell, «Introduction: Civilizing Projects and the Reaction to Them» in Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontier, ed. Steven Harrell (Seattle and London, 1995).
122
Eugene Weber, From Peasants to Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914 (Palo Alto, CA, 1976), 485. Благодарю Лоренцо Верачини за то, что обратил мое внимание на эту ссылку.
123
Dru C. Gladney, Dislocating China: Muslims, Minorities, and other Subaltern Subjects (Chicago, 2004), 360–366; Laura Hostetler, Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China (Chicago and London, 2001). Историки Китая вдохновлялись историками колониализма: Emma Teng, Taiwan’s Imagined Geography: Chinese Colonial Travel Writing and Pictures, 1683–1895 (Cambridge, MA, 2004); James A. Millward, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (Stanford, CA, 1998); Daniel McMahon, «Identity and Confl ict on a Chinese Borderland: Yan Ruyi and the Recruitment of the Gelao During the 1795–97 Miao Revolt», Late Imperial China 23, no. 2 (2002): 53–86; Peter C. Perdue, «Empire and Nation in Comparative Perspective: Frontier Administration in Eighteenth-Century China», Journal of Early Modern History 5, no. 4 (2001): 282–304; Perdue, «Boundaries, Maps, and Movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian Empires in Early Modern Central Eurasia», International History Review 20, no. 2 (1998): 263–86; Perdue, «Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, and Mongolia», Modern Asian Studies 30, no. 4 (1996): 757–793.
124
Dominik Schaller, «From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa», в этой книге.
125
Цитируется по: Mireille Rosello, «The ‘Césaire Effect’, or How to Cultivate One’s Nation» Research in African Literatures 32, no. 4 (2001): 86–87. See generally Robert Aldrich and John Connell, France’s Overseas Frontier (Cambridge, 1992), 108.
126
Alfred Crosby, Germs, Seeds, and Animals: Studies in Ecological History (Armonk, New York and London, 1994), 29–30.
127
Хорошая критика фаталистического преуменьшения человеческих возможностей у Кросби: Tom Griffiths, «Ecology and Empire: Towards an Australian History of the World» in Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies, ed. Tom Griffi ths and Libby Robin (Melbourne, 1997), 2–3. See also McDonnell and Moses, «Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas» 519.
128
McDonnell and Moses, «Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas» 517–20.
129
Donald Denoon, Settler Capitalism: The Dynamics of Dependant Development in the Southern Hemisphere (Oxford, 1983), 1.
130
Там же, 26. See Patrick Wolfe, «Structure and Event: Settler Colonialism, Time, and the Question of Genocide» in this volume. For literature on settler colonialism, see Andrew Armitage, Comparing the Policy of Aboriginal Assimilation: Australia, Canada, and New Zealand (Vancouver, 1995); Lynette Russell, ed., Colonial Frontier: Indigenous-European Encounters in Settler Societies (Manchester, 2001); Ronald Weitzer, Transforming Settler States: Communal Confl ict and Internal Security in Northern Ireland and Zimbabwe (Berkeley, CA, 1990); Kate Darian-Smith, Liz Gunner and Sarah Nuttall, eds., Text, Theory, Space: Land, Literature and History in South Africa and Australia (London and New York, 1996); David Trigger and Gareth Griffi ths, eds., Disputed Territories: Land, Culture and Identity in Settler Societies (Hong Kong, 2003); Tim Murray, The Archaeology of Contact in Settler Societies (Cambridge, 2004); Moses, Genocide and Settler Society.
131
Средневековый тюркский народ, который состоял из 24 основных племен и жил до XI века в степях Средней Азии и Монголии. – Примеч. ред.
132
Michael Adas, ed., Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History (Philadelphia, 2001); Peter B. Golden, «Nomads and their Sedentary Neighbors in Pre-Cinggisid Eurasia», Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 7 (1991): 41–81; Denis Sinor, «Inner Asian Warriors», Journal of the American Oriental Society 101, no. 2 Empire, Colony, Genocide 49 (1981): 133–144; Nicola Di Cosmo, «Ancient Inner Asian Nomads: Their Economic Basis and its Signifi cance in Chinese History», Journal of Asian Studies 52, no. 4 (1994): 1092–1126. Я благодарю Фиону Кидд за эти ссылки. Критику сельскохозяйственных обществ см. в книге: Hugh Brody. The Other Side of Eden. Hunter-Gatherers, Farmers, and the Shaping of the World (London 2000).
133
Ср.: Norbert Finzsch, «“Туземцы… так и не были истреблены и все же вымирают”: Колониальный империализм и геноцид в Америке и Австралии XIX века» в этой книге; и John C. Weaver, The Great Land Rush and the Making of the Modern World, 1650–1900 (Montreal and Kingston, 2003).
134
Cole Harris, «How Did Colonialism Dispossess Comments from an Edge of Empire», Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94, no. 1 (2004): 165–82. See also his Making Native Space: Colonialism, Resistance, and Reserves in British Columbia (Vancouver, 2002). Харрис находится под влиянием концепции Вулфа о «логике устранения», как и редакторы книги Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century: Projects, Practices, Legacies, ed. Caroline Elkins and Susan Pedersen (London, 2005). О Канаде: Colin Samson, A Way of Life that Does Not Exist: Canada and the Extinguishment of the Innu (London, 2003). О колониальных огораживаниях: Lance van Sittert, «Holding the Line: The Rural Enclosure Movement in the Cape Colony, 1865–1910», Journal of African History 43, no. 1 (2002): 95–118.
135
Denoon, Settler Capitalism, 27.
136
Timothy Parsons, The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A World History Perspective (Lanham, MD, 1999), 2.
137
De Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 61, 65.
138
H. L. Wesseling, «Colonial Wars: An Introduction» в книге Imperialism and War: Essays on Colonial Wars in Asia and Africa, ed. J.A. de Moor and H.L. Wesseling (Leiden, 1988), 3; Peter Paret, «Colonial Experience and European Military Reform at the End of the Eighteenth Century», в книге Warfare and Empires, ed. Douglas M. Peters (Aldershot, UK, 1997), 357–70.
139
Michael Howard, «Colonial Wars and European Wars» в книге de Moor and Wesseling, Imperialism and War, 218–23; George Raudzens, «Why did the Amerindian Defences Fail? Parallels in the European Invasions of Hispaniola, Virginia and Beyond» War in History 3, no. 3 (1996): 331–52; Luke Godwin, «The Fluid Frontier: Central Queensland, 1845–63» в книге Colonial Frontiers: Indigenous-European Encounters in Settler Societies, ed. Lynette Russell (Manchester, UK, 2001), 112.
140
