Империя, колония, геноцид. Завоевания, оккупация и сопротивление покоренных в мировой истории

Карифуна – альтернативное название карибских народов (калинаго), населявших Малые Антильские острова до европейской колонизации. – Примеч. ред.

141

Hilary Beckles, «The Genocide Policy in English-Karifuna Relations in the Seventeenth Century» in Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600–1850, ed. Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern (London, 1999), 280–302. Численность карибов, составлявшая 8000 человек, к 1730 году сократилась до 630 человек, а к середине XX века восстановилась до 900 человек. В 1960 году оно составляло 1136 человек при общей численности населения около 60 000, а в 1978 году – почти 2000.

142

Степь на юго-востоке Южной Америки. – Примеч. ред.

143

Richard W. Slatta, «Civilization’ Battles ‘Barbarism’: The Limits of Argentine Indian Frontier Struggle» in The Military and Confl ict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, ed. James C. Bradford (College Station, TX, 1997), 131–146.

144

C. E. Callwell, Small Wars: A Tactical Textbook for Imperial Soldiers, 3rd ed. (London, [1906] 1990), 26–27, 45, 145; Holquist, «To Count, to Extract, and to Exterminate».

145

De Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 70, 87.

146

Peter Rex, The English Resistance: The Underground War against the Normans (Stroud, UK, 2004), 87–105.

147

Nicholas P. Canny, «The Ideology of English Colonization: From Ireland to America» William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 30, no. 4 (1973): 582–583.

148

Katie Kane, «Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination» Cultural Critique, no. 42 (1999): 81–103; Robert Path, «Culture, Community, and ‘Rebellion’ in the Yucatec Maya Uprising of 1791» in Native Resistance and the Pax Colonial in New Spain, ed. Susan Schroeder (Lincoln and London, 1998), 67–83.

149

Michael Lieven, «‘Butchering the Brutes All Over the Place’: Total War and Massacre in Zululand in 1879», History 84 (October 1999): 614–632.

150

David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia, vol. 1, Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire (Oxford, 1998), 396–406.

151

Анализ недавней судебной практики в отношении намерения совершить геноцид и вопроса о том, какую часть группы необходимо уничтожить, чтобы считать это геноцидом, см. в: Drumbl, «Prosecutor v Radislav Krstic»; and Cecile Aptel, «The Intent to Commit Genocide in the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda» Criminal Law Forum 13, no. 3 (2002), 273–291.

152

Michael Freeman, «Genocide, Civilization and Modernity» British Journal of Sociology 46, no. 2 (1995): 207–23.

153

Eric Lohr, «The Russian Army and the Jews: Mass Deportations, Hostages, and Violence during World War One» Russian Review 60, no. 2 (2001): 404–419.

154

Terry Martin, «The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing» Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 813–861; N.F. Bugai and A.M. Gonov, «The Forced Evacuations of the Chechens and Ingush» Russian Studies in History 4, no. 2 (2002): 43–61; Nick Baron, «Stalinist Planning as Political Practice: Control and Repression on the Soviet Periphery, 1935–1938» Europe-Asia Studies 56, no. 3 (2004): 439–462.

155

John Gooch, «Re-Conquest and Suppression: Fascist Italy’s Pacifi cation of Libya and Ethiopia, 1922–39» Journal of Strategic Studies 28, no. 6 (2005): 1021; Nicola Labanca, «Colonial Rule, Colonial Repression and War Crimes in the Italian Colonies» Journal of Modern Italian Studies 9, no. 3 (2004): 300–313.

156

David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (London, 2004); Caroline Elkins, Britain’s Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya (London, 2004).

157

Ben Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 399, 428.

158

Donald Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians (Oxford, 2005).

159

Alex de Waal, «Counter-Insurgency on the Cheap» London Review of Books 26, no. 15 (5 August 2004).

160

Benjamin A. Valentino, Paul Huth, and Dylan Balch-Lindsay, «‘Draining the Sea’: Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare» International Organization 58 (Spring 2004): 375–407. Благодарю Картера Джонсона за предоставленную ссылку.

161

Benjamin A. Valentino, Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century (Ithaca, New York, 2004).

162

William W. Hagen, Germans, Poles, and Jews: The Nationality Confl ict in the Prussian East, 1772–1914 (Chicago and London, 1980), 134–135; Wolgang J. Mommsen, Max Weber and German Politics, 1890–1920 (Chicago, 1974), 26–28.

163

Chelvadurai Manogaran, «Space-Related Identity in Sri Lanka» in Nested Identities: Nationalism, Territory and Scale, ed. G.H. Herb and D.H. Kaplan (Lanham, MD, 1999), 199–216.

164

Richard Lee Turtis, «A World Destroyed, A Nation Imposed: The 1937 Haitian Massacre in the Dominican Republic» Hispanic American Historical Review 82, no. 3 (2002): 589–635.

165

Tara Zahra, «Looking East: East Central European ‘Borderlands’ in German History and Historiography» History Compass 3 (2005): 10; Eagle Glassheim, «National Mythologies and Ethnic Cleansing: The Expulsion of Czechoslovak Germans in 1945», Central European History 33, no. 4 (2000): 463–486.

166

Timothy Snyder, «The Causes of Ukraine-Polish Ethnic Cleansing, 1943» Past and Present, no. 179 (2003): 197–234.

167

Elena Lourie, «A Society Organised for War: Medieval Spain» в книге Lourie, Crusade and Colonisation: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Aragon (Aldershot, UK, 1990), 54–76; Pagden, Lords of All the World, 74.

168

Dussel, The Invention of the Americas, 13: «После столетий экспериментов в Андалузии это насилие, замаскированное под невинность – насилие, превращающее людей в жертв и требующее жертвоприношений, – начало свой долгий разрушительный путь». См. также: John Docker, 1492: The Poetics of Diaspora (London and New York, 2001), 190, 201; and Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: Five Hundred Years of Conquest and Resistance in the Americas (Boston and New York, 1992).

169

Mark Ferro, Colonization: A Global History (London, 1997), 2.

170

Robert Geraci, «Genocidal Fantasies and Impulses in Imperial Russia», в этой книге; Michael Rywkin, ed., Russian Colonial Expansion to 1917 (London, 1988); Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN, 2005); Michael Khodarkovsky, «Of Christianity, Enlightenment, and Colonialism: Russia in the North Caucasus, 1550–1800», Journal of Modern History 71, no. 2 (1999): 394–431; Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and the Russifi cation of the Western Frontier, 1863–1914 (Dekalb, IL, 1996); Jeff Sahadeo, «Conquest, Colonialism, and Nomadism on the Eurasian Steppe», Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 4, no. 4 (2003): 942–954; Dominic Lieven, «Dilemmas of Empire, 1850–1918: Power, Territory, Identity», Journal of Contemporary History 34, no. 2 (1999): 163–200; Keziban Acar, «An Examination of Russian Imperialism: Russian Intellectual and Military Descriptions of the Caucasians during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878» Nationalities Papers 32, no. 1 (2004): 7–21; John P. Ledonne, The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (New York, 1996); W. Bruce Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians (New York, 1994). Older literature: Richard A. Pierce, Russian Central Asia, 1867–1917: A Study in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, CA, 1960); Terence Armstrong, Russian Settlement in the North (Cambridge, 1965); Donald W. Treadgold, The Great Siberian Migration: The Government and Peasant Resettlement from Emancipation to the First World War (Princeton, NJ, 1957).

171

Zev Jabotinsky, «An Iron Wall (We and the Arabs)» in Zionism: Background Papers for an Evaluation, vol. 4, ed. Eliezer Schwied et al. (Jerusalem, n.d.), 67.

172

Nicholas A. Robins, Native Insurgencies and the Genocidal Impulse in the Americas (Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN, 2005).

173

Philippe R. Girard, «Caribbean Genocide: Racial War in Haiti, 1802–1804» Patterns of Prejudice 39, no 2 (2005): 137–161.

174

Richard Lee Turtis, «A World Destroyed, A Nation Imposed: The 1937 Haitian Massacre in the Dominican Republic» Hispanic American Historical Review 82, no. 3 (2002): 589–635.

175

See the chapters by Ben Kiernan and Alexander L. Hinton в этой книге.

176

Jacques Semelin, «Analysis of a Mass Crime: Ethnic Cleansing in the Former Yugoslavia, 1991–1999» in The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective, ed. Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan (Cambridge, 2003), 353–370; Bette Denich, «Dismembering Yugoslavia: Nationalist Ideologies and the Symbolic Revival of Genocide», American Ethnologist 21, no. 2 (1994): 367–390; Robert M. Hayden, «Imagined Communities and Real Victims: Self-Determination and Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia», American Ethnologist 23, no. 4 (1996): 783–801; Damir Mirkovic, «The Historical Link between the Ustasha Genocide and the Croato-Serbian Civil War: 1991–1995», Journal of Genocide Research 2, no. 3 (2000): 363–373; Anthony Oberschall, «The Manipulation of Ethnicity: From Ethnic Co-operation to Violence and War in Yugoslavia», Ethnic and Racial Studies 23, no. 6 (2000): 982–1001.

177

Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World (2001), 177–210.

178

Karl Marx, Karl Marx on Colonialism and Modernization, ed. and intro. Shlomo Avineri (New York, 1969), 224

179

Jean-Paul Sartre, «Preface» in Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 20.

180

Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 88.

181

Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, intro. Jean-Paul Sartre (Boston, [1957] 1965), 151. Лия Гринфельд также пишет об обиде – ненависти и зависти – источнике национализма. См. ее книгу Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 16.

182

Концепция, описывающая мировоззрение, в котором реальность жестко разделена на абсолютное добро и зло без полутонов. – Примеч. ред.

183

Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 93; Jean-Paul Sartre, «Introduction» in Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, xxviii; Abdul R. JanMohamed, Manichean Aesthetics: The Politics of Literature in Colonial Africa (Amherst, MA, 1983), 4.

184

Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, 130–131.

185

Там же, 130, 139. Проницательность Мемми очень близка к теории социального регресса, выдвинутой Вамиком Волканом. См. его книгу Bloodlines: From Ethnic Pride to Ethnic Terrorism (Boulder, CO, 1997); Volkan, Blind Trust: Large Groups and their Leaders in Times of Crisis and Terror (Charlottesville, VA, 2004); Volkan, «Traumatized Societies», в Violence or Dialogue? Psychoanalytic Insights on Terror and Terrorism, ed. Sverre Varvin and Vamik D. Volkan (London, 2003), 217–236.

186

Albert Memmi, Jews and Arabs (Chicago, 1975).

187

Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 146, 158; Benita Parry, «Resistance Theory/Theorising Resistance or Two Cheers for Nativism» in Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory, ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen (Manchester, UK, 1994), 172–191.

188

Ср.: Steven T. Katz, Historicism, The Holocaust, and Zionism: Critical Studies in Modern Jewish Thought and History (New York and London, 1992), 299.

189

Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, 134–137; Sartre, «Preface» в книге Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 18, 21.

190

Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 148.

191

Там же, 94, 24.

192

Sartre, «Preface» in ibid., 22. «Туземец излечивается от колониального невроза, вытесняя поселенца силой оружия. Когда его захлестывает ярость, он заново открывает свою утраченную невинность и познает себя через акт самосотворения – создает себя сам».

193

Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 156–159.

194

Clifford Geertz, «The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States» in Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, ed. Clifford Geertz (New York, 1963), 109–119.

195

Mahmood Mamdani, «Beyond Settler and Native as Political Identities: Overcoming the Political Legacy of Colonialism» Comparative Studies in Society and History 43, no. 4 (2001): 651–664.

196

Rosa Luxemburg, «The Junius Pamphlet: The Crisis in the German Social Democracy» в книге Rosa Luxemburg Speaks, ed. and intro May-Alice Waters (New York, 1970), 269, 281.

197

Я даю более подробный анализ в работе: A. Dirk Moses, «Colonialism» in The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies, ed. Peter Hayes and John K. Roth (Oxford, 2009).

198

Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 101.

199

Frantz Fanon, Black Skin/White Masks, trans. by Charles Lam Markmann (New York, 1967), 115, 89.

200

Цитируется по Richard H. King, Race, Culture, and the Intellectuals, 1940–1970 (Washington, DC and Baltimore, MD, 2004), 47.

201

Примером такого рода уравнивания или подмены понятий является Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide (San Francisco, 1997).

202

Например, Marianna Torgonvik, Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (Chicago, 1990), 9, 13.

203

Pascal Grosse, «From Colonialism to National Socialism: Hannah Arendt’s Origins of Totalitarianism» Postcolonial Studies 9, no. 1 (2006): 35–52; King and Stone, Hannah Arendt and the Uses of History. Я обсуждаю Арендт и империализм в: Moses, «Conceptual Blockages and Defi nitional Dilemmas in the ‘Racial Century» 31–33.

204

Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, 14–27; Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (London, 1963).

205

Беспощадность (нем.). – Примеч. ред.

206

Adolf Hitler, Hitler Reden und Proklamationen, 1932–1945, vol. 1, Triumph (1932–1938), ed. Max Domarus (Würzburg, 1962), 74–75. Он выступал против мирного экономического завоевания, ссылаясь на Британскую империю: «Ни одна нация не готовила более тщательно свое экономическое завоевание мечом с большей жестокостью и не защищала его впоследствии более безжалостно, чем британцы».

207

См.: David Furber and Wendy Lower, «Colonialism and Genocide in Nazi-Occupied Poland and Ukraine» в этой книге.

208

См., например: Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–44, ed. Hugh-Trevor Roper (London, 1973), 617.

209

Wendy Lower, Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine (Chapel Hill, NC, 2005), 25–26.

210

Jürgen Zimmerer, «The Birth of the Ostland Out of the Spirit of Colonialism: A Postcolonial Perspective on the Nazi Policy of Conquest and Extermination» Patterns of Prejudice 39, no. 2 (2005): 202–224; Moses, «Conceptual Blockages and Defi nitional Dilemmas in the ‘Racial Century’; Enzo Traverso, The Origins of Nazi Violence (New York and London, 2003); Benjamin Madley, «From Africa to Auschwitz: How German South West Africa Incubated Methods Adopted and Developed by the Nazis in Eastern Europe» European History Quarterly 33, no. 3 (2005): 429–464. Немецкие ученые Гетц Али и Сюзанна Хайм утверждают, что Холокост возник в результате «территориального решения» «еврейского вопроса» в восточно-центральной Европе в рамках нацистских планов более широкой «этнической реорганизации» региона для немецких переселенцев: Aly and Heim, Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction (London, 2002); David Furber, «Near as Far in the Colonies: The Nazi Occupation of Poland», International History Review 26, no. 3 (2004): 541–579; Dieter Pohl, «War, Occupation, and the Holocaust in Poland» in Stone, The Historiography of the Holocaust, 88–119; Rolf-Dieter Müller, ‘From Economic Alliance to a War of Colonial Exploitation», in Germany and the Second World War, vol. 4, The Attack on the Soviet Union, ed. Horst Boog, et al. (Oxford, 1998), 118–224.

211

Marcia Klotz, «Global Visions: From the Colonial to the National Socialist World» European Studies Journal 16, no. 2 (1999): 37–68.

212

Я обсуждаю этот вопрос в работе: A. Dirk Moses, «Structure and Agency in the Holocaust: Daniel J. Goldhagen and his Critics» History and Theory 37, no. 2 (1998): 194–219.

213

Ben Shepherd, «Wehrmacht Security Regiments in the Soviet Partisan War, 1943» European History Quarterly 33, no. 4 (2003): 493–529; Mark Mazower, «Military Violence and National Socialist Values: The Wehrmacht in Greece 1941–1944» Past and Present, no. 134 (1992): 129–158; Truman Anderson, «Incident at Baranivka: German Reprisals and the Soviet Partisan Movement in Ukraine, October-December 1941» Journal of Modern History 71, no. 3 (1999): 585–623.

214

Wilhelm Marr, «The Victory of Judaism over Germandom (1879)», в книге The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History, ed. Paul Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, 2nd ed. (New York and Oxford, 1995), 332.

215

«Der ewige Jude» (нем.) (1940) – нацистский пропагандистский фильм, который на русский обычно переводят как «Вечный жид». – Примеч. ред.

216

Айнзацгруппы (нем. Einsatzgruppen, букв. «оперативные группы») – это мобильные карательные подразделения СС и нацистской полиции, созданные для массовых убийств гражданского населения на оккупированных территориях Восточной Европы и СССР во время Второй мировой войны. – Примеч. ред.

217

См. анализ в: Klotz, «Global Visions», 44.

218

См. обсуждение в: Jared Poley, Decolonization in Germany: Weimar Narratives of Colonial Loss and Foreign Occupation (Oxford, 2005), 151–176.

219

Ср.: Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, The Years of Persecution (New York, 1997).

220

Именно так Махмуд Мамдани описывает нацистов в книге When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton, NJ, 2001), 9–11.

221

Levene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation State, vol. 1, 187; vol. 2, 225.

222

Этот отрывок является частью нацистской антисемитской пропаганды, повторяющей клеветнические стереотипы о евреях как «вечных чужаках» и паразитах, следующих за «культурно-созидательными арийцами». – Примеч. ред.

223

Christian Gerlach, «The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of the German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews» Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 759–812; Peter Holquist, «To Count, to Extract, and to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia» in A State of Nations, ed. by Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (Oxford, 2001), 111–144.

224

Историческое название города Познань в Польше. – Примеч. ред.

225

Lucy Dawidowicz, ed., A Holocaust Reader (West Orange, NJ, 1976), 133.

226

См.: Furber and Lower, «Colonialism and Genocide in Nazi-Occupied Poland and Ukraine».

227

Ulrich Herbert, ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies (New York, 2000).

228

См. о номинализме в: Traverso, Origins of the Nazi Violence.

229

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted by Resolution 260 (III) A of the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948, Article 2; Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress (Washington, DC, 1944).

230

Robert A. Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal Thought (Oxford, 1990), 325.

231

Существует множество исследований в этом жанре. См., например: Williams, American Indian; James Tully, An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts (Cambridge, 1993); Bhikhu Parekh, «Liberalism and Colonialism: A Critique of Locke and Mill», in The Decolonization of Imagination: Culture, Knowledge and Power, ed. Nederveen Pieterse and Bhikhu Parekh (London, 1995); Barbara Arneil, John Locke and America: The Defence of English Colonialism (Oxford, 1996); Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (Oxford, 1999); Duncan Ivison, Paul Patton, and Will Sanders, eds., Political Theory and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Cambridge, 2000); Anthony Pagden, «Human Rights, Natural Rights, and Europe’s Imperial Legacy», Political Theory 31, no. 2 (April 2003): 171–99; David Armitage, «John Locke, Carolina, and the Two Treatises of Government», Political Theory 32, no. 5 (October 2004): 602–627.

232

Генри Рейнольдс высказывает схожую мысль в контексте сопротивления миссионеров колониальным злоупотреблениям в Австралии XIX – начала XX века. См.: Henry Reynolds, This Whispering in Our Hearts (Sydney, 1998). On the need for a broad interpretation of intention, see A. Dirk Moses, «Genocide and Settler Society in Australian History» in Genocide and Settler Society. Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History, ed. A. Dirk Moses (New York, 2004), 23–30.