Актуальные вопросы лингвистики и лингводидактики: традиции и инновации. Часть 3

Второй особенностью спецкурсов на языке является развитие множества профессиональных и академических навыков в виде сопутствующих умений. Сам иностранный язык приобретает прикладной характер и становится инструментом для навыков второго уровня: умения провести анализ кейсов, организовать работу в командах, сделать презентацию, подготовить пресс-релиз или провести ролевую игру пресс-конференция.

В случае курса «Кризисные коммуникации» наряду с формированием теоретических знаний в области антикризисного управления, задачи дисциплины включали развитие навыков анализировать, оценивать и прогнозировать развитие кризисных ситуаций для дальнейшей разработки и реализации коммуникационных программ с помощью разбора конкретных ситуаций (case-studies), решения проблем (problem-solving) и разработки собственных планов управления кризисными ситуациями. В рамках курса можно отработать навыки подготовки документов для СМИ в области связей с общественностью (бэкграундера или заявления для прессы) или рассмотреть структуру плана действия в чрезвычайных ситуациях, посмотреть видео с пресс-конференции и проанализировать ее сильные и слабые стороны.

Опыт чтения спецкурса на английском языке показал, что все 20 магистров, вне зависимости от уровня владения языком, успешно справились с предметным содержанием, подготовили разбор кризисной ситуации и разработали антикризисный план, представленный в форме командной презентации. В условиях небольшой сетки часов по иностранному языку данный подход позволил оптимизировать освоение предмета, языка и навыков. Спецкурс получил отличные оценки от студентов в виде обратной связи.

Выводы

На основе опыта прочитанных курсов и спецкурсов на английском языке в МГУ и НИТУ МИСиС необходимо констатировать, что на данный момент методику предметно-языкового интегрированного обучения возможно реализовать при соблюдении целого ряда условий и требований.

Во-первых, возникает проблема с наличием в вузах соответствующего профессорско-преподавательского состава, который мог бы предлагать академические курсы на иностранном языке. При этом, преподаватель должен знать предметную область, владеть иностранным языком и методикой преподавания языка и коммуникативных навыков. Поскольку такие кадры в вузах на вес золота, возможен вариант совместной работы преподавателей двух кафедр: предметной и языковой. Кроме того, данную задачу может решить организация повышения квалификации преподавателей с целью овладения второй специальностью или иностранным языком.

Во-вторых, необходим достаточно высокий уровень владения иностранным языком у студентов. Это достигается или путем прохождения вступительных испытаний / установкой высокой планки и критериев отбора на программу, или постепенного совершенствования языковых навыков к уровню магистратуры.

На данный момент большинство вузов в рамках программ по иностранному языку реализуют методику иностранного языка для специальных целей (ESP), где акцент делается на иностранном языке в приложении к определенной области. Предметно-языковое интегрированное обучение является следующим, более высоким по сравнению с ESP уровнем, который выводит на первый план одновременно предметную область и знание иностранного языка как неотъемлемые компоненты курса. Поэтому именно уровень магистратуры представляется первой испытательной площадкой для успешной апробации данной методики. Сама структура спецкурса оптимально отвечает поставленным задачам, включая лекционные и семинарские занятия.

В-третьих, для некоторых курсов необходима академическая база, которая создается постепенным прохождением программы. Исходя из данных вводных, наиболее целесообразным является использование данной методики на уровне магистратуры, а также при чтении дополнительных спецкурсов и курсов по выбору.

В заключении, необходимо еще раз подчеркнуть высокий потенциал предметно-языкового интегрированного обучения.

Литература

1. Зарипова Р.Р. О результатах апробации модели интегрированного предметно-языкового обучения средствами русского и английского языков в высшей школе // Современные проблемы науки и образования. 2014. № 6.

2. Клец Т.Е. К вопросу об использовании предметно-языкового интегрированного обучения CLIL в системе иноязычной подготовки студентов // Иностранные языки: лингвистические и методические аспекты. 2015. № 30. С. 83–89.

3. Комарова А.Б. Предметно–языковое интегрированное обучение // Фундаментальные и прикладные исследования в современном мире. 2013. Т. 3. № 4 (04). С. 143–146.

4. Coombs W. Timothy, Holladay Sherry J. The Handbook of Crisis Communication. 1st edition. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

5. Coyle D. Hood P. & Marsh D. Content and language integrated learning. Cambridge University Press. 2010. URL: http://blocs.xtec.cat/clilprac-tiques1/files/2008/11/slrcoyle.pdf (дата обращения: 05.09.2018).

6. Dalton-Puffer, C. Discourse in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Classrooms. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co., 2007.

7. Fearn-Banks Kathleen. Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach (Routledge Communication Series). 4th edition. New York, Routledge, 2011.

8. Lukanina Maria. Crisis Counselor. Пособие по английскому языку для студентов отделения антикризисного управления. М.: Цифровичок, 2007.

9. Marsh D (Ed). Сontent and Language Integrated Learning: The European Dimensions – Actions, Trends and Foresight Potential. Jyvaskyla, University of Jyvaskyla. Finland, 2002.

The use of spatial metaphors for notions of time

Мехтиева А.С.

преподаватель

Ленкоранский государственный университет

Аннотация. В данной статье основное внимание уделяется абстрактности времени и рассматривается структурирование времени через пространственные метафоры. Также выделяется набор относительных сходств между концептуальными областями пространства и времени, рассматриваются несколько объяснений того, как эти сходства могли возникнуть. Результаты показывают, что области пространства и времени разделяют концептуальную структуру; пространственная относительная информация так же полезна для размышления о времени, как временная информация, и при частом использовании отображения между пространством и временем заносятся в область времени и поэтому размышления о времени не обязательно требует доступа к пространственным схемам.

Ключевые слова: метафора, пространство, время, понятия, будущее, прошлое, познание.

Abstract. This article focuses on the abstract domain of time and consider whether time is structured through spatial metaphors. I will highlight a set of relational similarities between the conceptual domains of space and time, consider several explanations of how these similarities may have arisen. The results indicate that the domains of space and time do share conceptual structure; spatial relational information is just as useful for thinking about time as temporal information, and with frequent use, mappings between space and time come to be stored in the domain of time and so thinking about time does not necessarily require access to spatial schemas.

Key words: metaphor, space, time, concepts, future, past, cognition.

As we know, for many people, metaphors are a means of poets or writers, in other words, creative people. Just a few people are aware of the fact that we actually use metaphorical expressions every day. It depends on the view everybody what thinks about it. The focus is on the work of Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors we live by, one of the first that brought the approach of omnipresent metaphors.

Before looking on this theory, there will be an overview of definitions as a start into that topic. Functions of metaphors, where already the omnipresence of metaphors will be indicated. After presenting Lakoff’s and Johnson’s approach, there will be a presentation of some fields where metaphors can be used and where, again, the presence of metaphors is proved. Before we can start testing every-day life language for metaphors, one has to define first what this language phenomenon actually means. There are several definitions Metaphors are, above all, means of figurative language, an indirect comparison without a word showing this comparison, e.g. the word like. Aristotle who was first to provide a scholarly treatment of metaphors gives a more detailed definition of the term metaphor. He said that a metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else; the transference being either from genius to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or on the ground of analogy [10]. English educator, literary critic I.A. Richards went further. He gave a terminology which is still used nowadays when talking about metaphors. For him a metaphor has two terms, called topic and vehicle. The latter one is the term used metaphorically. These two terms have a relationship called ground. Famous Soviet linguist Arnold gave this definition: A metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity and thus is actually a hidden comparison. It presents a method of description which likens one thing to another by referring to it as if it were some other one. A cunning person, for instance, is referred to as a fox. All these definitions have in common that they speak of two terms which a related to each other because of the similarities they have. But they also limit the function of metaphors to embellish the language [9, p. 130, 131]. There are other analysts who broadened the functions, namely George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their investigation Metaphors we live by. They proved that metaphors are omnipresent and indispensable in every-day-language. They write in their investigation Metaphors we live by: Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish-a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action. For this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor. We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. The concepts that govern our thought are not just matters of the intellect. They also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most mundane details. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people. Our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities. If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we think, what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor [1, p. 3].

Metaphors, H. Paul points out, may be based upon very different types of similarity or comparison, for instance, similarity of shape: head of a cabbage, the teeth of a saw. This similarity may be based on function. The transferred meaning is easily recognized from the context: the head of the school, the key to the mystery. The similarity may be supported also by position: foot of a page. Numerous cases of metaphoric transfer are based upon the analogy between duration of time and space, e.g. long distance-long speech, a short path-a short time [9, p. 130, 131].

The impact of spatial orientation on human thought and, in particular, our understanding of time has often been noted. Lakoff assumes that our metaphorical understanding of time in terms of space is biologically determined: “In our visual systems, we have detectors for motion and detectors for objects/locations. We do not have detectors for time (whatever that could mean). Thus, it makes good biological sense that time should be understood in terms of things and motion.” We need spatio-physical metaphors to speak about time in the same way that we need concrete metaphors to speak about other internal states such as emotions or thoughts. We also address the relationship in cognition and language between space and time. The universality of concepts or categories of space and time has been a key trope of Western thought since the philosophical reflections of Immanuel Kant. In many, if not most, languages, space and time are linked by metaphorical mapping relations. It has been proposed that such mappings reflect a universal conceptual “time is space” metaphor, based upon asymmetries in the nonlinguistic representation of space and time. We noted that spatial metaphors for time abound in the languages of the world, and this has led some cognitive scientists to propose that the “time is space” conceptual metaphor is a human cognitive universal. It is indeed the case that most, perhaps even all, languages have some words that are used with both spatial and temporal meanings; but not all of these are readily classifiable as metaphoric usages, and it is often difficult to decide whether single-word usages involve metaphor or metonymic fusion. To rigorously test the hypothesis that space–time metaphor is universal, we need to focus on usages that are systematic and unambiguously metaphoric in nature. For example, time passes or flows. This has been called the moving time metaphor. Sometimes, it is not time as a “thing,” dimension, or moment that moves, but events in time, as in “my birthday is approaching.” In a complementary schema, the moving ego schema, the speaker “moves” toward an event, as in “he is approaching his birthday.” Moving time and moving ego are the two possible variants of passage metaphor; the movement either of an event past the deictic center, or the deictic center past an event. Positional metaphor relies for its intelligibility on the shared understanding by speaker and hearer of the metaphoric orientation of a timeline in the front–back, vertical, or horizontal plane. In English, the future is ahead and the past is behind. “The best is before you” means that the best is waiting in the ‘future.’ In Azerbaijani and Russian it is the same very often. “The best is before you” is translated into Azerbaijani as “Әn yaxşısı sәnin qabağındadır, yәni irәlidәdir, gәlәcәkdәdir”. It is the same as English. Or into Russian as “самое лучшее перед вами”. This is also the same as English.

But this is not the case in all languages. For the Chinese speakers, qian suo wei jian 前所未見 “it has never been seen before” refers to the event that has never been seen in the past. In the Aymara language family of the Andes and in Yucatec Maya, the timeline orientation is reversed, so that, for example, in Yucatec Maya “my old age is behind me,” means it is in the future. Recall that in Yucatec Maya, there are no equivalent terms to “before” and “after” and it seems that passage metaphors are also absent.

How is the domain of time learned, represented, and reasoned about? Certainly some elements of time are apparent in our experience with the world. From experience, we know that each moment in time only happens once, that we can only be in one place at one time, that we can never go back, and that many aspects of our experience are not permanent (i.e. faculty meetings are not everlasting, but rather begin and end at certain times). In other words, our experience dictates that time is a phenomenon in which we, the observer, experience continuous unidirectional change that may be marked by appearance and disappearance of objects and events.

These aspects of conceptual time should be universal across cultures and languages. Indeed, this appears to be the case. In order to capture the sequential order of events, time is generally conceived as a one-dimensional, directional entity. Across languages, the spatial terms imported to talk about time are also one-dimensional, directional terms such as ahead/behind, or up/down, rather than multi-dimensional or symmetric terms such as shallow/ deep, or left/right. Aspects of time that are extractable from world experience (temporally bounded events, unidirectional change, etc.) may be represented in their own right. However, there are many aspects of our concept of time that are not observable in the world. For example, does time move horizontally or vertically? Does it move forward or back, left or right, up or down? Does it move past us, or do we move through it? All of these aspects are left unspecified in our experience with the world. They are, however, specified in our language ± most often through spatial metaphors. Whether we are looking forward to a brighter tomorrow, falling behind schedule, or proposing theories ahead of our time, we are relying on spatial terms to talk about time. The correspondences between space and time in language may afford us insight into how the domain of time is structured and reasoned about.

Time-moving metaphors identify the events temporally ordered with another in the time line. In time-moving metaphors, time can be conceived of as preceding and following one another in which time flows from the future via the ego, the point of reference, to the past. In this metaphor, the future is in the back and the past is in the front. For example, ‘The final exam is before Tuesday’ in which ‘before’, a space term, indicates ‘the final exam’ is proceeding ‘Tuesday’. Therefore, the final exam is in the relative the past and Tuesday in the relative future.

Only the “good” geometrical gestalts of a straight line and a full or partial circle are used as spatial shapes of the time-line. Atypical and irregular shapes are much less compatible with our experience of time, although we may think of “creative” metaphors such as The new year stumbled upon us or The old year fluttered away, which, however, suggest a particular manner of motion rather than a specific shape of the time-line. The straight line with its potentially open ends provides an ideal template for time as passing, and most of our Western concepts of time make use of the linear model. The circle as a two-dimensional form is ideally suited to represent recurrent, cyclic time. The notion of cyclic time is often associated with exotic languages, but it is far from uncommon in Western languages. It is, for example, reflected in the proverbial expression History always repeats itself. The only time unit which is readily understood as circular in English is the year as in (1a), while days require specific wordings as in (1b) [7, p. 229].

1. a. Guided tours are offered year-round.

b. Our shop is open round the clock.

c. The cat slept round the day.

The circular understanding of a 24-hour day in (1b) is, of course, iconically motivated by the round shape and the small hand of a clock – although it normally goes round the clock twice in 24 hours. Days in general as well as other cyclic units of time such as seconds, minutes, hours, weeks, or centuries are not metaphorized in English as ‘round’. While a full circle suggests the repetition of the same time or event, a sector suggests taking a new direction away from a line or cycle. The sector of a circle is therefore used to describe completed cycles which are seen as establishing substantial changes. This is the case with expressions like turn of the century and to turn twenty.

The following descriptions of static situations illustrate our standard arrangement with the future in front of us (cf. 2a) and the past behind us (cf. 2b) [7, p.230].

2. a. I can’t face the future / Troubles lie ahead / I look forward to seeing you.

b. That’s all behind us now / That was way back in 1900 / Look back in anger.

Our understanding of time is essentially metaphoric. The most important metaphorical source domain is that of space, and the conceptual metaphor TIME AS SPACE is conceptually well motivated. However, the topologies of space and time differ in some respects: in particular, space is three-dimensional, while time is thought of as one-dimensional. As a result, the TIME AS SPACE metaphor allows for considerable variation in the mappings of particular structural elements. This study investigated dimensions of time regarding which variations in metaphorical mappings typically occur: dimensionality of time, orientation of the timeline, shape of the time-line, position of times relative to the observer, sequences of time units, and motion of time. Different cultures and languages as well as the same culture and language may make different uses of potential mappings. Certain beliefs about the nature of time turn out to be ill founded. For example, with respect to the position of time and events on the time-line, many languages are often believed to code the future as being behind and the past as being in front. This is, in fact, a very exceptional pattern. In languages like English and Russian, the future is conceived of in front and the past behind, and their apparently contradictory position on the timeline can be explained by the observer’s division of the sequence of time units. The two variants of conceptualizing motion of time also appear, at first sight, to be counter-intuitive: they do not conform with our folk view of flowing time. In the moving-time model, time flows into the “wrong” direction: in the moving-ego model, it is not time that moves, but the observer. Yet, these seemingly whimsical views of time are conceptually well-motivated, and provide a template for thinking of, and expressing, different notions of time.

Литература

1. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. М., 1973.

2. Boroditsky L. Metaphoric structuring: understanding time through spatial metaphors // Stanford University, 1999.

3. Evans V., Green M. Cognitive Linguistics: an introduction. Edinburgh University Press, 2006.

4. Kövecses Z. Metaphor. Oxford University Press, 2010.

5. Lakoff G., Johnson M. Metaphors We Live By // The University of Chicago Press, 1980.

6. Lakoff G. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor // Cambridge University Press, 1992.

7. Moore K.E. The Spatial Language of Time. San José State University.

8. Radden G. The Metaphor TIME AS SPACE across Languages. Hamburg, 2003.

9. Wilkinson P.R. Thesaurus of Traditional English Metaphors. London; New York, 2002.

10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor.

11. http://proverbicals.com/time-proverbs.

12. http://www.wiseoldsayings.com/time-quotes.

Экспрессивность заголовков информационной аналитики (на материале англоязычных печатных СМИ)

Силаева Н.В.

кандидат филологических наук

Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова

Аннотация. Статья посвящена проблеме, связанной с реализацией функции воздействия, присущей заголовку в современных медиа-текстах информационной аналитики. Выявление и описание механизмов экспрессивности осуществляется с позиции нарративного подхода, позволяющего выявить пространственно-временную и сюжетную динамику описываемого в СМИ политического события.

Ключевые слова: политический нарратив, медиа-политический дискурс, медиа-текст, функция воздействия заголовка, прецедентные тексты.

EXPRESSIVENESS OF HEADLINES IN ANALYTIC NEWS STORIES (AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING PRINTED MEDIA)

Abstract. The present article focuses on means of rendering expressiveness in printed analytic news stories at a headline level. The article considers relevant expressive means and mechanisms within a political narrative analysis aiming at spatiotemporal as well as narrative dynamics in regard of a particular political event presented in and by media.

Key words: political narrative, media political discourse, media text, expressiveness of a headline, precedent texts.