Buffon's Natural History. Volume X (of 10)

From the year 1701 to 1756 inclusive, a variety of observations were made with thermometers, and the following were the results. The greatest degree of heat, and of cold, which was experienced at Paris in each year was collected; a total of these was made, and it was found that the mean estimate, in all the thermometers, reduced to Rheaumur’s division, was 1026, for the greatest heat in summer, that is 26 degrees above the freezing point; and that the mean degree of cold in winter, during those 56 years, was 994, or 6 degrees below the freezing point of water, whence we concluded that the greatest heat in our summers at Paris differs from the greatest cold of our winters only 1/32, since 994: 1026 :: 31: 32; and it was on this foundation that we stated the latter to be the relation of the greatest heat to the greatest cold. But it may be objected against the precision of this valuation, the defect of the construction of the thermometer, and Rheaumur’s division (to which we have here reduced the scale of all the rest); and this defect is extending only 1000 degrees below that of ice, as if 1000 degrees were in fact, that of absolute cold, whereas absolute cold does not exist in nature; and that of the smallest heat should be supposed 10,000 instead of 1000, which would alter the thermometer’s gradation. It may likewise be said that it is possible all our sensations between the greatest heat and the greatest cold are comprised in as small an interval as that of a unit on 32 of heat, but that the voice of judgment seems to be raised against this opinion, and tells us this limit is too confined, and that it is much easier to reduce this interval than to give it an eighth, or a seventh instead of a thirty-second.

But be this valuation as it may, there can be no doubt of the truth of these facts which we have drawn from our observations, for in the same manner as we found, from the comparison of 56 successive years, the heat of summer at Paris 1026, or 26 degrees above the freezing point, we also found, with the same thermometers, that the heat in summer was 1026 in every climate of the earth, from the equator to the polar circle;11 at Madagascar, in the islands of France and Bourbon, Roderigo, Siam, and the East-Indies; at Algiers, Malta, Cadiz, Montpelier, Lyons, Amsterdam, Upsal, Petersburgh, and as far as Lapland, near the polar circle. At Cayenne, Peru, Martinico, Carthagena in America; at Panama; in short, in all the climates of the two hemispheres and continents where observations could be made, it has been constantly found that the liquor of the thermometer rose equally to 25, 26, or 27 degrees in the hottest days in summer; and hence ensues the incontestible fact of the equality of heat in summer in all climates of the earth. There are indeed some exceptions, for at Senegal, and some few other places, the thermometer rises 5 or 6 degrees higher, to 31 or 32 degrees; but that arises from accidental and local causes, which do not alter the truth of the observations, nor the certainty of the general fact, which alone might demonstrate to us, that there really exists a very great heat in the terrestrial globe, that the effect, or the emanations, of which are nearly equal in all the points of its surface, and that the sun, very far from being the only sphere of heat which animates nature, is at best only the regulator. This important fact, which we consign to posterity, will enable it to discover the real progression of the diminution of the heat of the terrestrial globe, which we have been only able to determine in a hypothetical manner. In a few centuries, I am confident it will be found that the greatest heat of summer, instead of raising the liquor of the thermometer to 26, will not raise it to more than 25, or 24; and from this effect, which is the result of all the combined causes, a judgment may be formed of the value of each of the particular causes, which produce the total effect of heat on the surface of the globe; for the heat which belongs to the earth, and which it has possessed from the time of incadescence, has very considerably diminished, and will continue to diminish with the course of time: this heat is independent of that which comes from the sun; the latter may be looked upon as constant, and consequently in futurity will make a greater compensation than at present. To the loss of this innate heat of the globe there are two other particular causes, which may add a considerable quantity of heat to the effect of the two first, the only ones we have as yet taken notice of.

One of these particular causes proceeds, in some measure, from the first general cause, and may add something to it. It is certain that during the time of incadescence, and indeed all the subsequent ages till that of the refrigeration of the earth, not any of the volatile matters could reside at the surface, or even in the internal part, of the globe; they were raised and dispersed in the form of vapours, and could not deposit themselves but successively in proportion as it cooled, by which means some of these matters have penetrated through the clefts and crevices of the earth to great depths, in an infinity of places; and this is the primitive foundation of volcanos, which are all found in lofty mountains, where the clefts of the earth are so much the greater as these points of the globe are more projecting and isolated. This deposit of the volatile combustible matters of the first ages will have been greatly augmented by the addition of every combustible matter which has been subsequently formed. Pyrites, sulphurs, coal, bitumen, &c. have penetrated into the principal cavities of the earth, and produced almost every where great masses of inflammable matters, and often conflagrations, which have been manifested by earthquakes, erruptions of volcanos, and by the hot springs which flow from mountains, or run internally in the cavities of the earth. It may, therefore, be presumed that these subterraneous fires, some of which burn without explosion, and others with great noise and violence, somewhat increase the general heat of the globe. Nevertheless this addition of heat can be only very slight, for it has been observed that it is nearly as cold on the top of volcanos as on the top of other mountains of the same height, except at the very time when the volcano throws out inflamed vapours or burning matters.

The second cause, which seems not to have been thought of, is the motion of the moon round the earth. This secondary planet performs its evolution round the earth in 27 days and one third, and being 85,325 leagues distance, it goes over a circumference of 536,329 leagues in this space of time, which makes a motion of 817 leagues in an hour, or from 13 to 14 leagues in a minute. Although this rout is, perhaps, the slowest of all the celestial bodies, yet it is rapid enough to produce on the earth, which serves for the axis or pivot to this motion, a considerable heat by the friction which results from the weight and velocity of this planet. But it is not possible to estimate the quantity of heat produced by this exterior cause, because hitherto we have had nothing which might serve us for a term of comparison. But if we ever can discover the number, magnitude, and velocity, of all the planets which circulate round the sun, we shall then be able to judge of the quantity of heat which the moon can give to the earth, by the much greater quantity of fire which all these vast bodies excite in the sun. For my own part I am greatly inclined to think that the heat produced by this cause in the globe of the earth, forms a very considerable part of its own heat: and that, in consequence, we must still extend the limits of time for the duration of nature. But let us return to our principal object.

We have observed that the summers are very nearly equal in all climates of the earth, and that this truth is founded on incontestible facts; but it is not the same with respect to winters; they are very unequal, and vary in different climates, as we remove further from that of the equator, where the heat in winter and summer is nearly the same. I think I have already explained in a satisfactory manner the cause of this, viz, the suppression of the terrestrial heat. This suppression is, as I have said, occasioned by the cold winds, which fall from the air, bind the earth, freeze the waters, and shut up the emanations of the terrestrial heat during the time the frosts remain; so that it is not at all surprising that the cold in winter is in fact so much the greater as we advance further towards the climates where the mass of air, receiving the rays of the sun more obliquely is for that reason colder.

But with respect to the cold as well as to the heat, there are some countries which are an exception to the general rule. At Senegal, Guinea, Angola, and probably in every country where the natives are black, as in Nubia, the country of the Papous, New Guinea, &c. it is certain that the heat is greater there than in any other part of the earth; but this arises from local causes and therefore in those particular climates where the east wind reigns during the whole year, passes over a very considerable track of land, and receives a scorching heat before it arrives to them, it is not surprising that the heat is found 5, 6, and even 7 degrees greater than it is elsewhere. The excessive colds of Siberia, are also to be attributed to that part of the surface of the globe being much higher than that which surrounds it. "The northern Asiatic countries (says the Baron Strahlenberg in his description of the Russian Empire) are considerably more elevated than the European. They are like a table, in comparison of the bed on which they appear so be placed; for on coming from the west and leaving Russia, we pass to the east by the mountains Ripha and Rymnikas to enter Siberia, and constantly advance to an ascent." “There are many places in Siberia,” says M. Gmelin, “which are not less elevated above the rest of the earth, nor less remote from its centre, than are many high mountains in many other regions.” These plains of Siberia, appear, in fact, to be as high as the summit of the Riphean mountains, on which the ice and snow do not wholly melt during summer; and if the same effect do not happen in the plains of Siberia, it is because they are less detached, for this local circumstance also adds much to the duration and to the intensity of cold and heat. A vast plain once made hot will retain its heat longer than a detached mountain, though both are alike elevated; and for the same reason the mountain once cooled will retain its snow or ice longer than the plain.

But if we compare the excess of heat with that of cold produced by these particular and local causes, we shall be surprized to find, that in Senegal, &c. where the heat is greatest, it never exceeds seven degrees beyond the summer heat in other countries, which is 26 degrees above the freezing point, while on the contrary, the colds of Siberia sometimes reach 60 or 70 degrees below it, and that at Petersburgh, Upsal, &c. under the same latitude as Siberia, the greatest cold is not more than to 25 or 26 degrees below the freezing point; therefore, we must conclude, that these local causes have much more influence in cold than in hot climates. Although we cannot pretend to determine what this great difference in the excess of cold and heat may produce, yet by reflecting on it, it appears that we may easily conceive the reason of this difference. The augmentation of the heat in such a climate as Senegal can only proceed from the action of the air, the nature of the soil, and the depression of the ground; for this country being almost on a level with the sea, it is in a great measure covered with scorching sands, over which an easterly wind continually blows; this, instead of refreshing the air, only renders it more burning, because it traverses over more than 2000 leagues of land in its way, and consequently acquires a considerable degree of heat. But in such countries as Siberia, where the plains are elevated like the summits of mountains above the level of the rest of the earth, this sole difference of elevation must produce an effect proportionally greater than the depression of the ground of Senegal, which cannot be supposed more than that of the level of the sea; for if the plains of Siberia be only elevated 4 or 500 fathoms above the level of Upsal, or Petersburgh, we must cease from being astonished that the excess of cold is so great there; since the heat which emanates from the earth, decreases at each point as the space increases, and this elevation of the ground alone suffices to explain this great difference of cold under the same latitude.

On this point there remains only one interesting question. Men, animals, and plants, may, for some time, support the rigour of this cold, which is 60 degrees below the freezing point; but could they also support a heat which should be 60 degrees above it? To this we answer, yes, provided we knew as well how to guard against the heat as we do to shelter ourselves from the cold; and if the air could, during the remainder of the year, refresh the earth, in the same manner as the emanations of the heat of the globe warms the air in cold countries. We know of plants, insects, and fish, which live and grow in baths of 45, 50, and even 60 degrees of heat; there are, therefore, species in living nature which can support this degree of heat; and as the negroes are in the human race those whom a strong heat the least incommodes, might we not conclude, according to this hypothesis, that the earth has continued to decline from its original heat, and that the race of negroes are more ancient than that of white people?

GENERAL VIEWS OF NATURE

FIRST VIEW

NATURE is that system of laws established by the Creator for regulating the existence of bodies and the succession of beings. Nature is therefore not a body, for if it were so, it would comprehend every thing; neither is it a being, for in that case it would necessarily be God. We must rather consider Nature as an immense living power, which is in subordination to the Supreme Being, and by his command animates the universe, and whose actions are dependent on, and continued by, his concurrence or consent. This power is that part of Divine omnipotence which is manifested to mankind; it is the cause and effect, the mode and substance, the design and execution. Extremely different from all human art, whose productions are inanimate, Nature is herself a work perpetually alive, an active, an unceasing operator, who knows how to make use of every material, and whose power, though always employed on the same invariable plan, instead of suffering diminution, is perfectly inexhaustible: time, space, and matter, are her means; the universe her object; and motion and life her end.

Every object in the universe is the effect of this power. Those springs which she makes use of are active forces which time and space can only limit but can never destroy; forces which unite, balance, and oppose, but are incapable of annihilating each other. Some penetrate and connect bodies, others heat and animate them. It is principally by attraction and impulsion, that this power acts upon brute matter, while heats and organic molecules are her chief active agents, which she employs in the formation and expansion of organized beings. Aided by such instruments, how can the operations of Nature be limited? She only wants the additional power to create and annihilate to become omnipotent. But these two extremes the Almighty has reserved to himself alone; the power of creating and annihilating are his peculiar attributes; while that of changing, destroying, unfolding, renewing, and producing, are the only privileges he has conferred on this or any other agent. Nature, the minister of his irrevocable commands, the depositary of his immutable decrees, never deviates from the laws he has prescribed to her; she never changes any part of his original plan, but in all her operations she exhibits the will and design of the eternal Lord of the universe. This grand design, this unalterable impression of all existence, is the model upon which she invariably acts; a model of which all the features are so strongly impressed, that they can never be effaced; a model which the infinite number of copies, instead of impairing, only serve to renew.

We may therefore affirm that every thing has been created, but nothing annihilated; Nature acts between the two without ever reaching either the one or the other. It is in some points of this vast space, which she has filled and traversed from the beginning of ages, that we must endeavour to lay hold of her to bring her into view.

What an infinity of objects, comprehending an infinity of matter, which would have been created in vain, had it not been divided into portions, separated from each other by almost inconceivable spaces! Myriads of luminous globes, placed at immense distances, are the bases which support the fabric of the universe, and millions of opaque globes, which circulate round them, constitute the moving order of its architecture. By two primitive forces, each of which are in continual action, these masses are revolved and carried through the immensity of space; and their combined efforts produce the zones of the celestial spheres, and in the midst of vacuity establish fixed stations, and regular routes and orbits. From motion proceeds the equilibrium of worlds, and the repose of the universe. The first of these forces is equally divided, but the second is separated in unequal proportions. Every atom of matter contains the same degree of attractive force, while every individual globe has a different quantity of impulsive force assigned to each. Of the stars, some are fixed and others wandering; some globes appear formed to attract, and others to impel or be impelled. Some spheres have received a common impulsion in the same direction, and others a particular impulsion. Some stars are alone, and others are attended by satellites; some are luminous, and others opaque masses. There are planets whose different parts successively enjoy a borrowed light, and there are comets which, after being lost in the immensity of space for several ages, return to receive the influence of the solar heat. There are some suns which appear and disappear as if they were alternately kindled and extinguished; and there are others which merely shew themselves and then are seen no more. Heaven abounds with great events, which the human eye is scarcely able to perceive. A sun which expires and annihilates a world, or system of worlds, has no other effect upon the eyes of man than an ignis-fatuus, which gives a transitory blaze and then vanishes for ever. Man, confined to the terrestrial atom on which he vegetates, considers this atom as a world, and looks upon other worlds as atoms.

This earth which we inhabit is scarcely distinguishable among the other globes, and perfectly invisible to the distant spheres; it is at least a million times smaller than the sun by which it is illuminated, and even a thousand times less than some of the planets which, by its influence, the sun compels to circulate round him. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Earth, Venus, Mercury, and the Sun, occupy that small portion of the heavens which we term our Universe. These planets, with their satellites, moving with amazing celerity in the same direction, and almost in the same plane, compose a wheel of an immense diameter, whose axis supports the whole weight, and which by the rapidity of its own rotation must inflame and diffuse heat and light throughout the whole circumference. As long as this regular motion continues (and which will be eternal, unless the Divine Mover exert the same force to destroy as He thought necessary to create them) the sun will burn and illuminate all the spheres of this universe with his splendor; and as, in a system where the whole of the bodies mutually attract each other, nothing can be lost or removed without being returned, the quantity of matter must always remain the same; this great source of light and life can never be extinguished or exhausted, for other suns, which also continually dart forth their fires, constantly restore to our sun as much light as they take from him. Comets are more numerous than planets, and like them depend on the power of the sun; they also press on the common focus, and by augmenting the weight increase the inflammation. They may also be said to form a part of our universe, for, like the planets, they are subject to the attraction of the sun. But in their projectile and impelled motions they have nothing in common either with each other or with the planets. Every one of them circulates in a different plane, and they each describe orbits in different periods of time; for some perform their revolutions in a few years, while others require several centuries. The sun, simply moving round his own centre, remains, as it were at rest in the midst, and, at the same time, serves as a torch, a focus, and an axis, to all and every part of this wonderful machine.

That the sun continues immoveable, and regulates the motions of the other globes, is to be ascribed to his magnitude alone. The force of attraction being in proportion to the mass of matter; as the sun is so considerably larger than any of the comets, and contains above a thousand times more matter than the most extensive planet, they can neither derange him nor diminish his influence, which extending to immense distances keeps the whole within the bounds of his power, and thus at particular periods recals those which have stretched furthest into the regions of space. Some of these on being brought back, approach so near the sun, that after having cooled for ages they receive an inconceivable degree of heat. From experiencing these alternate extremes of heat and cold, they are subject to singular vicissitudes, as well as from the inequalities of their motions, which at some times are most inconceivably rapid, and at others so amazingly slow as to be scarcely perceptible. In comparison with the planets the comets may be considered as worlds in disorder, for to them the orbits of the planets are regular, their movements equal, their temperature always the same; they appear to be places of rest, where, every thing being permanent, Nature, has the power of establishing a uniform plan of operation, and successively to mature her various productions. Among the planets the Earth, which we inhabit, seems to possess peculiar advantages; from being less distant from the Sun than Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, it does not experience that excess of cold; nor is it so scorched as Venus and Mercury, which appear to revolve in an orbit too near the body of that luminary. Besides, what a peculiar magnificence from Nature does the earth enjoy? A pure light, gradually extending from east to west, alternately gilds both hemispheres of this globe; which is also surrounded with a pure transparent element. By a mild and fertile heat all the germs of existence are animated and unfolded, and they are nourished and supported by a plentiful supply of excellent waters. Considerable eminences dispersed over the surface of the land, not only check, but collect the moist vapours which float in the air, and give rise to perpetual fountains. Immense cavities evidently formed for the reception of those waters, separate islands and continents. The sea in extent is equal to that of the land: nor is this a cold and barren element, but a new empire, no less rich and no less furnished with inhabitants. By the finger of the Almighty the limits of the waters are marked out. If the sea encroach on the western shores, it retreats from those of the east. This great mass of water, though inactive of itself, is agitated, and put in motion by the influence of the celestial bodies, whence arise its regular and constant flux and reflux; it rises and falls with the course of the moon, and is always at the highest when the action of the sun and moon concurs; it is from these causes uniting at the time of the equinoxes, that the tides are then higher than at any other time; and this is certainly the strongest mark of the connection of this globe with the heavens. These general and constant motions are the cause of many variable and particular circumstances; it is by those that the removals of earth are occasioned, which falling in the form of sediment, produce mountains at the bottom of the sea, similar to those which are on the surface of the land; they also give rise to currents, which following the direction of these chains of mountains, bestow on them a figure, whose angles correspond, and maintain a course in the midst of the waves as waters run upon land; they may in fact, be considered as sea-rivers.