Всё решено: Жизнь без свободы воли

Предположение, что, как это часто бывает, на феномен влияет культура: E. Rantapuska et al., "Does Short-Term Hunger Increase Trust and Trustworthiness in a High Trust Society?," Frontiers of Psychology 8 (2017): 1944.

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Подробнее см. главу 3 в: Сапольски Р. Биология добра и зла: Как наука объясняет наши поступки. – М.: Альпина нон-фикшн, 2019.

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Классическое исследование, демонстрирующее, что тестостерон не порождает агрессию с нуля, а, напротив, усиливает уже существующую социально усвоенную склонность к агрессивному поведению: A. Dixson & J. Herbert, "Testosterone, Aggressive Behavior and Dominance Rank in Captive Adult Male Talapoin Monkeys (Miopithecus talapoin)," Physiology and Behavior 18 (1977): 539.

Как некоторые поведенческие эффекты тестостерона обусловлены его воздействием на мозг: K. Kendrick & R. Drewett, "Testosterone Reduces Refractory Period of Stria Terminalis Neurons in the Rat Brain," Science 204 (1979): 877; K. Kendrick, "Inputs to Testosterone-Sensitive Stria Terminalis Neurones in the Rat Brain and the Effects of Castration," Journal of Physiology 323 (1982): 437; K. Kendrick, "The Effect of Castration on Stria Terminalis Neurone Absolute Refractory Periods Using Different Antidromic Stimulation Loci," Brain Research 248 (1982): 174; K. Kendrick, "Electrophysiological Effects of Testosterone on the Medial Preoptic-Anterior Hypothalamus of the Rat," Journal of Endocrinology 96 (1983): 35; E. Hermans, N. Ramsey & J. van Honk, "Exogenous Testosterone Enhances Responsiveness to Social Threat in the Neural Circuitry of Social Aggression in Humans," Biological Psychiatry 63 (2008): 263.

В 1990 г. этолог Джон Уингфилд с коллегами из Калифорнийского университета в Дэвисе опубликовал чрезвычайно важную работу о влиянии тестостерона на агрессию. Их «гипотеза вызова» утверждает, что тестостерон не только не вызывает агрессию, но и не усиливает уже существующие социальные тенденции к агрессии. Напротив, в те моменты, когда организму бросают вызов в борьбе за социальный статус, тестостерон усиливает любые формы поведения, необходимые для поддержания статуса. Что ж, это можно понять – если вы самец павиана, чье положение оспаривается, то агрессия – именно то, что вам нужно для поддержания статуса. Но когда речь заходит о людях, то здесь нюансов еще больше, поскольку статус можно поддерживать разными способами. Например, в экономической игре, где статус приобретается за счет щедрых экономических предложений, тестостерон повышает такую щедрость. См.: J. Wingfield et al., "The 'Challenge Hypothesis': Theoretical Implications for Patterns of Testosterone Secretion, Mating Systems, and Breeding Strategies," American Naturalist 136 (1990): 829. Гипотеза помогает объяснить широкий спектр тестостеронозависимого поведения: J. Wingfield "The Challenge Hypothesis: Where It Began and Relevance to Humans," Hormones and Behavior 92 (2017): 9. См. также: J. Archer, "Testosterone and Human Aggression: An Evaluation of the Challenge Hypothesis," Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30 (2006): 319.

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Статьи о поведенческой и нейробиологической подоплеке способности тестостерона провоцировать реакцию на угрозу: E. Hermans, N. Ramsey & J. van Honk, "Exogenous Testosterone Enhances Responsiveness to Social Threat in the Neural Circuitry of Social Aggression in Humans," Biological Psychiatry 63 (2008): 263; J. van Honk et al., "A Single Administration of Testosterone Induces Cardiac Accelerative Responses to Angry Faces in Healthy Young Women," Behavioral Neuroscience 115 (2001): 238; N. Wright et al., "Testosterone Disrupts Human Collaboration by Increasing Egocentric Choices," Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279 (2012): 2275; P. Mehta & J. Beer, "Neural Mechanisms of the Testosterone-Aggression Relation: The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex," Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 (2010): 2357; G. van Wingen et al., "Testosterone Reduces Amygdala-Orbitofrontal Cortex Coupling," Psychoneuroendocrinology 35 (2010): 105; P. Bos et al., "The Neural Mechanisms by Which Testosterone Acts on Interpersonal Trust," Neuroimage 2 (2012): 730.

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Некоторые исследования, изучающие причины индивидуальных различий в работе тестикулярной системы: C. Laube, R. Lorenz & L. van den Bos, "Pubertal Testosterone Correlates with Adolescent Impatience and Dorsal Striatal Activity," Development and Cognitive Neuroscience 42 (2020): 100749; B. Mohr et al., "Normal, Bound and Nonbound Testosterone Levels in Normally Ageing Men: Results from the Massachusetts Male Ageing Study," Clinical Endocrinology 62 (2005): 64; W. Bremner, M. Vitiello & P. Prinz, "Loss of Circadian Rhythmicity in Blood Testosterone Levels with Aging in Normal Men," Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 56 (1983): 1278; S. Beyenburg et al., "Androgen Receptor mRNA Expression in the Human Hippocampus," Neuroscience Letters 294 (2000): 25.

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Несколько качественных общих обзоров: R. Feldman, "Oxytocin and Social Affiliation in Humans," Hormones and Behavior 61 (2012): 380; Z. Donaldson & L. Young, "Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Neurogenetics of Sociality," Science 322 (2008): 900; P. S. Churchland & P. Winkielman, "Modulating Social Behavior with Oxytocin: How Does It Work? What Does It Mean?," Hormones and Behavior 61 (2012): 392.

Статьи, посвященные различиям в окситоциновой системе у моногамных и полигамных грызунов: L. Young et al., "Increased Affiliative Response to Vasopressin in Mice Expressing the V1a Receptor from a Monogamous Vole," Nature 400 (1999): 766; M. Lim et al., "Enhanced Partner Preference in a Promiscuous Species by Manipulating the Expression of a Single Gene," Nature 429 (2004): 754.

Статьи, посвященные различиям в окситоциновой системе у моногамных и полигамных нечеловекообразных приматов: A. Smith et al., "Manipulation of the Oxytocin System Alters Social Behavior and Attraction in Pair-Bonding Primates, Callithrix penicillata," Hormones and Behavior 57 (2010): 255; M. Jarcho et al., "Intranasal VP Affects Pair Bonding and Peripheral Gene Expression in Male Callicebus cupreus," Genes, Brain and Behavior 10 (2011): 375; C. Snowdon et al., "Variation in Oxytocin Is Related to Variation in Affiliative Behavior in Monogamous, Pairbonded Tamarins," Hormones and Behavior 58 (2010): 614.

Нейробиологические основы эффектов окситоцина: гипоталамический путь, который различается в зависимости от пола: N. Scott et al., "A Sexually Dimorphic Hypothalamic Circuit Controls Maternal Care and Oxytocin Secretion," Nature 525 (2016): 519. Пример работы окситоцина в островковой коре головного мозга при изменении социальных взаимодействий см.: M. Carter-Rogers et al., "Insular Cortex Mediates Approach and Avoidance Response to Social Affective Stimuli," Nature Neuroscience 21 (2018): 404. Пример влияния окситоцина на миндалину: Y. Liu et al., "Oxytocin Modulates Social Value Representations in the Amygdala," Nature Neuroscience 22 (2019): 633; J. Wahis et al., "Astrocytes Mediate the Effect of Oxytocin in the Central Amygdala on Neuronal Activity and Affective States in Rodents," Nature Neuroscience 24 (2021): 529.

Окситоцин и родительство, в том числе отцовское поведение: O. Bosch & I. Neumann, "Both Oxytocin and Vasopressin Are Mediators of Maternal Care and Aggression in Rodents: From Central Release to Sites of Action," Hormones and Behavior 61 (2012): 293; Y. Kozorovitskiy et al., "Fatherhood Affects Dendritic Spines and Vasopressin V1a Receptors in the Primate Prefrontal Cortex," Nature Neuroscience 9 (2006): 1094; Z. Wang, C. Ferris & G. De Vries "Role of Septal Vasopressin Innervation in Paternal Behavior in Prairie Voles," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91 (1994): 400.

Генетические и эпигенетические факторы, опосредующие индивидуальные различия в чувствительности к окситоцину: Marsh et al., "The Influence of Oxytocin Administration on Responses to Infants and Potential Moderation by OXTR Genotype," Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 224 (2012): 469; M. J. Bakermans-Kranenburg & M. H. van Ijzendoorn, "Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) and Serotonin Transporter (5–HTT) Genes Associated with Observed Parenting," Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 3 (2008): 128; E. Hammock & L. Young, "Microsatellite Instability Generates Diversity in Brain and Sociobehavioral Traits," Science 308 (2005): 1630.

Анналы совершенно неотразимых находок: M. Nagasawa et al., "Oxytocin-Gaze Positive Loop and the Coevolution of Human-Dog Bonds," Science 348 (2015): 333. Когда собака и человек смотрят друг другу в глаза, у обоих выделяется окситоцин; если ввести окситоцин одному из них, он будет смотреть дольше, усиливая секрецию окситоцина у другого. Другими словами, гормональная система, играющая центральную роль в родительском поведении и привязанности в паре, то есть система, возраст которой насчитывает не менее 100 млн лет, за последние 30 000 лет была приспособлена создавать привязанность между человеком и волком.

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Влияние окситоцина на страх и тревожность: M. Yoshida et al., "Evidence That Oxytocin Exerts Anxiolytic Effects via Oxytocin Receptor Expressed in Serotonergic Neurons in Mice," Journal of Neuroscience 29 (2009): 2259. Действие, оказываемое окситоцином на миндалину: D. Viviani et al., "Oxytocin Selectively Gates Fear Responses through Distinct Outputs from the Central Nucleus," Science 333 (2011): 104; H. Knobloch et al., "Evoked Axonal Oxytocin Release in the Central Amygdala Attenuates Fear Response," Neuron 73 (2012): 553; "Oxytocin Attenuates Amygdala Responses to Emotional Faces Regardless of Valence," Biological Psychiatry 62 (2007): 1187; P. Kirsch et al., "Oxytocin Modulates Neural Circuitry for Social Cognition and Fear in Humans," Journal of Neuroscience 25 (2005): 11489; I. Labuschagne et al., "Oxytocin Attenuates Amygdala Reactivity to Fear in Generalized Social Anxiety Disorder," Neuropsychopharmacology 35 (2010): 2403.

Окситоцин притупляет реакцию на стресс: M. Heinrichs et al., "Social Support and Oxytocin Interact to Suppress Cortisol and Subjective Responses to Psychosocial Stress," Biological Psychiatry 54 (2003): 1389.

Влияние окситоцина на эмпатию, доверие и сотрудничество: S. Rodrigues et al., "Oxytocin Receptor Genetic Variation Relates to Empathy and Stress Reactivity in Humans," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (2009): 21437; M. Kosfeld et al., "Oxytocin Increases Trust in Humans," Nature 435 (2005): 673; A. Damasio, "Brain Trust," Nature 435 (2005): 571; S. Israel et al., "The Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) Contributes to Prosocial Fund Allocations in the Dictator Game and the Social Value Orientations Task," Public Library of Science One 4 (2009): e5535; P. Zak, R. Kurzban & W. Matzner, "Oxytocin Is Associated with Human Trustworthiness," Hormones and Behavior 48 (2005): 522; T. Baumgartner et al., "Oxytocin Shapes the Neural Circuitry of Trust and Trust Adaptation in Humans," Neuron 58 (2008): 639; J. Filling et al., "Effects of Intranasal Oxytocin and Vasopressin on Cooperative Behavior and Associated Brain Activity in Men," Psychoneuroendocrinology 37 (2012): 447; A. Theodoridou et al., "Oxytocin and Social Perception: Oxytocin Increases Perceived Facial Trustworthiness and Attractiveness," Hormones and Behavior 56 (2009): 128. Не удалось воспроизвести: C. Apicella et al., "No Association between Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) Gene Polymorphisms and Experimentally Elicited Social Preferences," Public Library of Science One 5 (2010): e11153.

Влияние окситоцина на агрессивность: M. Dhakar et al., "Heightened Aggressive Behavior in Mice with Lifelong versus Postweaning Knockout of the Oxytocin Receptor," Hormones and Behavior 62 (2012): 86; J. Winslow et al., "Infant Vocalization, Adult Aggression, and Fear Behavior of an Oxytocin Null Mutant Mouse," Hormones and Behavior 37 (2005): 145.

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C. De Dreu, "Oxytocin Modulates Cooperation within and Competition between Groups: An Integrative Review and Research Agenda," Hormones and Behavior 61 (2012): 419; C. De Dreu et al., "The Neuropeptide Oxytocin Regulates Parochial Altruism in Intergroup Conflict among Humans," Science 328 (2011): 1408; C. De Dreu et al., "Oxytocin Promotes Human Ethnocentrism," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (2011): 1262.

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K. Parker et al., "Preliminary Evidence That Plasma Oxytocin Levels Are Elevated in Major Depression," Psychiatry Research 178 (2010): 359; S. Freeman et al., "Effect of Age and Autism Spectrum Disorder on Oxytocin Receptor Density in the Human Basal Forebrain and Midbrain," Translational Psychiatry 8 (2018): 257.

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R. Sapolsky, "Stress and the Brain: Individual Variability and the Inverted-U," Nature Neuroscience 25 (2015): 1344.

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Влияние стресса и гормонов стресса на миндалину: J. Rosenkranz, E. Venheim & M. Padival, "Chronic Stress Causes Amygdala Hyperexcitability in Rodents," Biological Psychiatry 67 (2010): 1128; S. Duvarci & D. Pare, "Glucocorticoids Enhance the Excitability of Principal Basolateral Amygdala Neurons," Journal of Neuroscience 27 (2007) 4482; A. Kavushansky & G. Richter-Levin, "Effects of Stress and Corticosterone on Activity and Plasticity in the Amygdala," Journal of Neuroscience Research 84 (2006): 1580; P. Rodriguez Manzanares et al., "Previous Stress Facilitates Fear Memory, Attenuates GABAergic Inhibition, and Increases Synaptic Plasticity in the Rat Basolateral Amygdala," Journal of Neuroscience 25 (2005): 8725.

Влияние стресса и гормонов стресса на взаимодействие между миндалиной и гиппокампом: A. Kavushansky et al., "Activity and Plasticity in the CA1, the Dentate Gyrus, and the Amygdala Following Controllable Versus Uncontrollable Water Stress," Hippocampus 16 (2006): 35; H. Lakshminarasimhan & S. Chattarji, "Stress Leads to Contrasting Effects on the Levels of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor in the Hippocampus and Amygdala," Public Library of Science One 7 (2012): e30481; S. Ghosh, T. Laxmi & S. Chattarji, "Functional Connectivity from the Amygdala to the Hippocampus Grows Stronger after Stress," Journal of Neuroscience 33 (2013): 7234.

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Влияние стресса и гормонов стресса на поведение: S. Preston et al., "Effects of Anticipatory Stress on Decision-Making in a Gambling Task," Behavioral Neuroscience 121 (2007): 257; P. Putman et al., "Exogenous Cortisol Acutely Influences Motivated Decision Making in Healthy Young Men," Psychopharmacology 208 (2010): 257; P. Putman, E. Hermans & J. van Honk, "Cortisol Administration Acutely Reduces Threat-Selective Spatial Attention in Healthy Young Men," Physiology and Behavior 99 (2010): 294; K. Starcke et al., "Anticipatory Stress Influences Decision Making under Explicit Risk Conditions," Behavioral Neuroscience 122 (2008): 1352.

Половые различия и эффекты стресса/гормонов стресса: R. van den Bos, M. Harteveld & H. Stoop, "Stress and Decision-Making in Humans: Performance Is Related to Cortisol Reactivity, Albeit Differently in Men and Women," Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 (2009): 1449; N. Lighthall, M. Mather & M. Gorlick, "Acute Stress Increases Sex Differences in Risk Seeking in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task," Public Library of Science One 4 (2009): e6002; N. Lighthall et al., "Gender Differences in Reward-Related Decision Processing under Stress," Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 7 (2012): 476.

Влияние стресса и гормонов стресса на агрессию: D. Hayden-Hixson & C. Ferris, "Steroid-Specific Regulation of Agonistic Responding in the Anterior Hypothalamus of Male Hamsters," Physiology and Behavior 50 (1991): 793; A. Poole & P. Brain, "Effects of Adrenalectomy and Treatments with ACTH and Glucocorticoids on Isolation-Induced Aggressive Behavior in Male Albino Mice," Progress in Brain Research 41 (1974): 465; E. Mikics, B. Barsy & J. Haller, "The Effect of Glucocorticoids on Aggressiveness in Established Colonies of Rats," Psychoneuroendocrinology 32 (2007): 160; R. Böhnke et al., "Exogenous Cortisol Enhances Aggressive Behavior in Females, but Not in Males," Psychoneuroendocrinology 35 (2010): 1034; K. Bertsch et al., "Exogenous Cortisol Facilitates Responses to Social Threat under High Provocation," Hormones and Behavior 59 (2011): 428.

Влияние стресса и гормонов стресса на принятие решений морального характера: K. Starcke, C. Polzer & O. Wolf, "Does Everyday Stress Alter Moral Decision-Making?," Psychoneuroendocrinology 36 (2011): 210; F. Youssef, K. Dookeeram & V. Basdeo, "Stress Alters Personal Moral Decision Making," Psychoneuroendocrinology 37 (2012): 491.

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Больше по этой теме в книге Р. Сапольски «Биология добра и зла», в главе 4.

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К сноске: Большая история (повторного) открытия нейрогенеза у взрослых, см.: M. Specter, "How the Songs of Canaries Upset a Fundamental Principle of Science," New Yorker, July 23, 2001.

Поведенческие следствия нейрогенеза у взрослых: G. Kempermann, "What Is Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis Good For?," Frontiers of Neuroscience 16 (2022), doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.852680; Y. Li, Y. Luo & Z. Chen, "Hypothalamic Modulation of Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Mice Confers Activity-Dependent Regulation of Memory and Anxiety-Like Behavior," Nature Neuroscience 25 (2022): 630; D. Seib et al., "Hippocampal Neurogenesis Promotes Preference for Future Rewards," Molecular Psychiatry 26 (2021): 6317; C. Anacker et al., "Hippocampal Neurogenesis Confers Stress Resilience by Inhibiting the Ventral Dentate Gyrus," Nature 559 (2018): 98.

Кроме всего прочего, опыт влияет еще и на рождение тех самых, менее бросающихся в глаза, глиальных клеток в мозге взрослых людей: A. Delgado et al., "Release of Stem Cells from Quiescence Reveals Gliogenic Domains in the Adult Mouse Brain," Science 372 (2021): 1205.

Дискуссия о том, в какой степени происходит нейрогенез у взрослых людей: S. Sorrells et al., "Human Hippocampal Neurogenesis Drops Sharply in Children to Undetectable Levels in Adults," Nature 555 (2018): 377. Противоположное мнение: M. Baldrini et al., "Human Hippocampal Neurogenesis Persists throughout Aging," Cell Stem Cell 22 (2018): 589. Статья с аналогичной точкой зрения: G. Kempermann, F. Gage & L. Aigner, "Human Neurogenesis: Evidence and Remaining Questions," Cell Stem Cell 23 (2018): 25. Голос в пользу революционеров: S. Ranade, "Single-Nucleus Sequencing Finds No Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Humans," Nature Neuroscience 25 (2022): 2.

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R. Hamilton et al., "Alexia for Braille Following Filateral Occipital Stroke in an Early Blind Woman," Neuroreport 11 (2000): 237; E. Striem-Amit et al., "Reading with Sounds: Sensory Substitution Selectively Activates the Visual Word Form Area in the Blind," Neuron 76 (2012): 640; A. Pascual-Leone, "Reorganization of Cortical Motor Outputs in the Acquisition of New Motor Skills," in Recent Advances in Clinical Neurophysiology, ed. J. Kinura & H. Shibasaki (Elsevier Science, 1996), pp. 304–8.

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S. Rodrigues, J. LeDoux & R. Sapolsky, "The Influence of Stress Hormones on Fear Circuitry," Annual Review of Neuroscience 32 (2009): 289.

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Общий обзор см.: B. Leuner and E. Gould, "Structural Plasticity and Hippocampal Function," Annual Review of Psychology 61 (2010): 111.

Влияние стресса на структуру гиппокампа: A. Magarinos & B. McEwen, "Stress-Induced Atrophy of Apical Dendrites of Hippocampal CA3c Neurons: Involvement of Glucocorticoid Secretion and Excitatory Amino Acid Receptors," Neuroscience 69 (1995): 89; A. Magarinos et al., "Chronic Psychosocial Stress Causes Apical Dendritic Atrophy of Hippocampal CA3 Pyramidal Neurons in Subordinate Tree Shrews," Journal of Neuroscience 16 (1996): 3534; B. Eadie, V. Redila & B. Christie, "Voluntary Exercise Alters the Cytoarchitecture of the Adult Dentate Gyrus by Increasing Cellular Proliferation, Dendritic Complexity, and Spine Density," Journal of Comparative Neurology 486 (2005): 39; A. Vyas et al., "Chronic Stress Induces Contrasting Patterns of Dendritic Remodeling in Hippocampal and Amygdaloid Neurons," Journal of Neuroscience 22 (2002): 6810.

Нейропластичность, имеющая отношение к депрессии: P. Videbach & B. Revnkilde, "Hippocampal Volume and Depression: A Meta-analysis of MRI Studies," American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): 1957; L. Gerritsen et al., "Childhood Maltreatment Modifies the Relationship of Depression with Hippocampal Volume," Psychological Medicine 45 (2015): 3517.

Влияние физической активности и сенсорной стимуляции на нейропластичность: J. Firth et al., "Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Hippocampal Volume in Humans: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis," Neuroimage 166 (2018): 230; G. Clemenson, W. Deng & F. Gage, "Environmental Enrichment and Neurogenesis: From Mice to Humans," Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 4 (2015): 56.

Эстроген и нейропластичность: B. McEwen, "Estrogen Actions throughout the Brain," Recent Progress in Hormone Research 57 (2002): 357; N. Lisofsky et al., "Hippocampal Volume and Functional Connectivity Changes during the Female Menstrual Cycle," Neuroimage 118 (2015): 154; K. Albert et al., "Estrogen Enhances Hippocampal Gray-Matter Volume in Young and Older Postmenopausal Women: A Prospective Dose-Response Study," Neurobiology of Aging 56 (2017): 1.

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N. Brebe et al., "Pair-Bonding, Fatherhood, and the Role of Testosterone: A Meta-analytic Review," Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 98 (2019): 221; Y. Ulrich-Lai et al., "Chronic Stress Induces Adrenal Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy in a Subregion-Specific Manner," American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism 291 (2006): E965.

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J. Foster, "Modulating Brain Function with Microbiota," Science 376 (2022): 936; J. Cryan & S. Mazmanian, "Microbiota-Brain Axis: Context and Causality," Science 376 (2022): 938. Также см.: C. Chu et al., "The Microbiota Regulate Neuronal Function and Fear Extinction Learning," Nature 574 (2019): 543. Отличный пример того, как события предыдущих недель или месяцев безотчетно меняют поведение, см.: S. Mousa, "Building Social Cohesion between Christians and Muslims through Soccer in Post-ISIS Iraq," Science 369 (2020): 866. В целях эксперимента футбольные команды одной из лиг были составлены либо исключительно из игроков-христиан, либо из игроков двух разных религий (при этом сами игроки не знали, что так было задумано в рамках исследования). Проведя игровой сезон в компании мусульман, игроки-христиане проявляли гораздо больше симпатии к своим мусульманским товарищам по команде, не меняя при этом явно выраженного отношения к мусульманам.

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Больше по этой теме в книге Р. Сапольски «Биология добра и зла», в главе 5.

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A. Caballero, R. Granbeerg & K. Tseng, "Mechanisms Contributing to Prefrontal Cortex Maturation during Adolescence," Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 70 (2016): 4; K. Delevich et al., "Coming of Age in the Frontal Cortex: The Role of Puberty in Cortical Maturation," Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 118 (2021): 64. Хроническое нарушение сна у мышей-подростков изменяет работу дофаминовой системы вознаграждения во взрослой жизни, и не в лучшую сторону; другими словами, наши мамы были правы, когда призывали нас не поддаваться подростковой тяге не спать по ночам: W. Bian et al., "Adolescent Sleep Shapes Social Novelty Preference in Mice," Nature Neuroscience 25 (2022): 912.