Names: and Their Meaning

Henry VIII. (reigned 1509 to 1547) was surnamed Bluff King Hal on account of his bluff manners; he also received the title of Defender of the Faith from Pope Leo X., in recognition of the tract he published against the heresy of Martin Luther. Mary, Queen of Scots (born 1542, died 1587), was known as The White Queen because she adopted white mourning for her husband, Lord Darnley. Our own Queen Mary (1547 to 1558) has been handed down to posterity under the opprobrious title of Bloody Mary, in consequence of the wholesale burnings of the Protestants under her reign. The religious persecutions of her time admit of no denial, yet they were fully equalled by those brought to light during the reign of her successor, Elizabeth, while they fell infinitely short of those characterized by the reign of Henry VIII. In one sense Elizabeth (1558 to 1603) was appropriately styled Good Queen Bess, inasmuch as she exercised due regard to the interests of the realm and the welfare of her people. Her enemies she speedily removed, but she was just as ready to bestow honours and rewards upon her nation’s worthies. Oliver Cromwell was called The Lord Protector (born 1599, died 1658) because he protected the interests of the Commonwealth. The reason why Charles II. (1660 to 1685) was dubbed The Merry Monarch must be sought in the licentiousness of the times in which he lived. Much nearer to our own day, William IV. (1830 to 1837) was distinguished by the title of The Sailor King, from the circumstance of his having entered the navy as a midshipman and worked his way upwards until he attained the rank of Lord High Admiral.

The family name of Plantagenet, derived from the Latin planta, a plant, and genista, broom, was originally assumed by Fulke Martel, Earl of Anjou, the great grandfather of Henry II., in commemoration of the incident, while on his pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre, of having offered himself to be scourged with the stems of the broom plant by his two attendants as an atonement for the murder of the Earl of Brittany. The Tudor Dynasty was founded by Owen Tudor, a Welsh soldier stationed at Windsor, who contracted a secret marriage with Catherine, the widowed queen of Henry V. The first of the long line of the Stuart sovereigns (Scottish and English) was Walter, the Lord High Steward of Scotland, whose wife was the daughter of King Robert the Bruce. As this Walter was the sixth member of his family that had held the post of Lord High Steward, he was popularly said to belong to the Stewards, until in course of time this word became corrupted into Stuarts, and was adopted as a family name.

Charles I., Emperor of Germany (born 742, died 814), was surnamed Charlemagne, otherwise Charles the Great. The She-Wolf of France was Isabella (born 1290, died 1357), daughter of Philip IV. of France, and queen of Edward II. of England, whom she, in concert with the Earl of Mortimer, her paramour, murdered by thrusting a red-hot iron into his bowels. Pedro the Cruel, King of Castille and Leon in 1350, merited his surname owing to his cruel treatment of his two brothers, whom he murdered, and his queen, whom he poisoned. Ivan II., Czar of Russia (reigned 1533 to 1584), was styled The Terrible on account of the cruelties he inflicted upon all who offended his autocracy. Frederick I., of Germany (reigned 1152 to 1190), was surnamed Barbarossa from his red beard, barba being Latin for beard; while for his bombardment of Messina in 1848 Ferdinand, King of Naples, was nicknamed Bomba. Philippe, Duc d’Orleans, the father of Louis Philippe, King of France, assumed the name of Egalité when he joined the Republican party in 1789. Of a truth, if “Equality” was what this not unworthy Prince aspired to, he enjoyed it to the full, for he lost his head under the guillotine in common with more than twenty thousand of his fellow-citizens.

NATIONAL NICKNAMES

Brother Jonathan, the popular nickname of the United States, arose out of the person of Jonathan Trumbull, the Governor of Connecticut, whom General Washington never failed to consult in cases of emergency. “We must refer the matter to Brother Jonathan!” he was wont to exclaim when no other officer could offer any practical suggestion to aid him out of a difficulty; and true enough, “Brother Jonathan” proved himself in every instance equal to the confidence reposed in him. Another stock nickname for the United States is Uncle Sam. This originated from a vulgar misconception of the initial letters “U. S.” (United States) for those of the well-known sobriquet of an official whose business it was to mark them on all Government property. The numerous acquaintances of this person understood that the goods so marked had passed through the hands of “Uncle Sam,” and the joke becoming public it spread far and wide, until in the end it was considered far too good to be allowed to drop. The term Yankee finds its origin in the native attempt to pronounce the word “English,” but approaching no nearer to the sound than Yengees, the name bestowed upon the English colonists by the Indians of Massachusetts, and afterwards given to the New Englanders by the British soldiers during the American War.

The nickname of the typical Englishman, John Bull, was derived from Dr. Arbuthnot’s satire of this title published in 1721. There was also a real person of the name of John Bull, well known as the composer of “God Save the King”; but he died just a hundred years before Dr. Arbuthnot’s performance was heard of. Of a still later date is the national English nickname, Mrs. Grundy, which arose out of the passage, “What will Mrs. Grundy say?” from Thomas Morton’s drama, “Speed the Plough,” produced in 1798. The proverbial prudishness of the English people in matters affecting art, could scarcely be better expressed than under the style of The British Matron. The British soldier is popularly referred to under the general designation of Tommy Atkins, because “Thomas Atkins” was a fictitious name that figured in the soldiers’ monthly statement of accounts.

The Irish as a nation are invariably alluded to as Pat or Paddy, being short for Patrick, their most common Christian name, selected in honour of St. Padhrig, or Patrick (born 373, died 466); the Scots as Sandie or Sawney, a contraction of Alexander, their most popular Christian name; and the Welsh as Taffy, a corruption of Davy, and short for David, the name of their Archbishop and Saint (born 490, died 554).

The national nickname of the Chinese is John Chinaman, in imitation of our own characteristic “John Bull.” Even now a Chinaman addresses every Englishman he meets as “John,” which is his idea of our most popular name. Hence, British sailors in the Chinese waters from the first returned the compliment, so to speak, by alluding to each Celestial with whom they came in contact as “John Chinaman.”

The Chinese are also called Pigtails, on account of their Tartar tonsure and braided queue. By the Indians of North America Europeans are styled Pale Faces; while the Europeans designate the Indians Red Skins, both terms having reference to the complexion. The word Nigger is a corruption of Negro, derived from niger, the Latin for black. The reason why a negro generally bears the name of Sambo is because Zambo is the native term used to designate the offspring of a black person and a mulatto. The word Mulatto is Spanish, derived from the Latin mulus, a mule, and signifying a mixed breed. A Mulatto may be either the offspring of a negress by a white man, or of a white woman by a negro.

BIRDS

The following owe their names to their characteristic note:—the Cuck-oo, the Pee-wit, the Cur-lew, the Chick-a-dee, and the Whip-poor-will. The Trumpeter of South America is so called on account of its loud, clear, and trumpet-like cry. The word Nightingale is a modern form of the Anglo-Saxon nihtegale, indicative of a bird that sings by night, agreeably to its component parts, niht, night, and gale, a songster. The Night-Jar bears its name because the sound it emits resembles the whirring of a spinning-wheel. The Mocking-bird possesses the power of imitating the notes of other birds; while the Humming-bird is remarkable for the humming sound that proceeds from its wings as it speeds through the air.

Several birds are named after the colour or some other characteristic of their plumage. Among these we have the Greenfinch and the Goldfinch, the term Finch from the Anglo-Saxon finc, denoting a small singing bird; the Greenlet expressing a tiny green bird peculiar to South America; the Jay, a corruption of gai, its French name, alluding to its gay or showy appearance; the Blue-bird, common in the United States, the upper half of which is blue; the Blackbird, so called from its sable aspect; the Starling, owing to the specks at the extremities of its feathers; the Flamingo, of South America and Africa, from its flaming colour; the Oriole, an Australian bird of golden-yellow plumage, agreeably to the Latin aureolus, golden; and the Lyre-bird, also a native of Australia, so denominated on account of the sixteen feathers of the tail which when folded form in appearance a perfect lyre. The British song-bird known as the Red-poll receives its name from the tuft of red feathers upon its head; whereas the South African Secretary-bird is so called because a tuft of feathers on each side of its head are supposed to resemble quill pens stuck behind the ear. The South American Birds of Paradise are indeed a beautiful species, all the colours of the rainbow being represented in their plumage; and the same may be said of the Love-birds, so designated from the extraordinary affection which they exhibit towards one another. The Kingfisher is regarded as the king of fisher-birds, or those that dive for fish as their prey, by reason of his gay plumage.

The Lapwing derives its name from the loud flapping noise made by its wings during flight; the Wagtail, from the incessant wagging of its tail; and the Scissors-tail—found only in South America—from the peculiar nature of its tail, which, like a pair of scissors, opens and shuts in the course of its rapid passage through the air and so entraps the flies upon which it preys. The Hangbird is so called from its habit of suspending its nest from the limb of a tree; the Weaver-bird, from the wonderful intertwining of twigs and grass displayed in the construction of its nest; and the Tailor-bird, from the skill it displays in constructing its nest by stitching together the leaves of plants.

Among corruptions of the names of birds it will be sufficient to mention the Widow-bird, properly the Whydaw-bird, after the territory in Africa of which it is a native; the Martin, from the Latin murustenco, or wall-swallow, shortened into murten, and mispronounced marten; and the Muscovy Duck, which, so far from claiming a Muscovite origin, is merely a musk duck, a species somewhat larger than our common duck.

The Swift derives its name from its rapid flight; the Passenger-pigeon, from its migratory habits; the Skylark, from mounting to the sky and singing as it flies; and the Chaffinch, from its preference for chaff above every other kind of food. The Diver is remarkable for its habit of diving; the Sandpiper inhabits the sea-beach; and the Chimney-swallow builds his nest in an ordinary house chimney. The Horn-bill, the Boat-bill, the Spoon-bill, and the Duck-bill are respectively so named on account of the resemblance of their bills to the articles, and in the last-mentioned case to the bird, indicated; while the Cross-bill has its mandibles crossed in opposite directions. The Pouter-pigeon is so called from the pouting, or bulging out, of its breast; the Ring-dove, from the white ring around its neck; and the Wryneck, from the curious manner in which it turns its neck over its shoulder when surprised. The Woodcock is found in the underwood of a forest, while the Woodpecker pecks holes in the bark of trees in search for insects.

Chief among the birds which derive their names from the countries to which they originally belonged are the Guinea-fowl, brought from Guinea, West Africa; the Brahma-fowl, from the neighbourhood of the Brahmapootra River in India; the Bantam, from Bantam in Java; the Barb, from Barbary, and the Turkey, which, although an American bird, was long believed to have been imported from European Turkey. Another native of North America received its name of the Baltimore-bird from the fact that its colours corresponded with those which occurred in the arms of Lord Baltimore, the Governor of Maryland, in which State it principally abounds. The Canary was first brought from the Canary Islands in 1500. The Petrel, a sea-bird usually associated with storms, expresses the Anglicized form of the Italian petrillo, a diminutive of Peter, in allusion to St. Peter walking on the sea, and the frequent appearance of this bird standing as it were on the surface of the water.

RELIGIOUS ORDERS

Strictly speaking, the members of the various Religious Orders, in this country at least, are not Monks, but Friars. Only those who live completely isolated from the rest of mankind, as did St. Anthony, are entitled to the former designation, which, in common with the term Monastery, comes from the Greek monos, alone. Consequently, a Religious House is incorrectly described as a Monastery unless each individual within its walls occupies a separate cell, both by night and by day, and never suffers himself to have the least communion with his neighbour. Failing compliance with such a rule, the term Convent, derived from the Latin con, together, and venire, to come, is more fittingly applicable. This designation, however, is now borne by an institution reserved for a community of Nuns, so called from the Italian nonna, a grandmother, because they originally comprised only very aged women; albeit it was formerly the custom to speak of Monasteries and Convents without discrimination. An Abbey always indicated a Religious House in connection with a Church, as, for example, Westminster Abbey, the abode of the community attached to the West Minster, presided over by an Abbot, so styled in accordance with the Syriac and Latin abba, a father, or, in the case of a female community, by an Abbess; whereas a Priory denoted a lesser or branch establishment placed at some distance from the Abbey, and controlled by a Prior (or Prioress), signifying one who had a prior claim over the rest to the office of Abbot (or Abbess) in the original community.

A Friar, on the other hand, is—conformably to the Latin fratre and the French frère, a brother—what the term implies, viz., one of a brotherhood. In olden times there existed four distinct and powerful Orders of Friars. These were the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic to preach away the Albigensian heresies, also known as the Black Friars, on account of their black habits, and in France as the Jacobins, because their first convent was situated in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris; the Franciscans, or Grey Friars, named after St. Francis d’Assissi; the Carmelites, or White Friars of Mount Carmel; and the Augustines, or Austin Friars, whose origin is ascribed to St. Augustin or Austin, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 605. Eventually a fifth Order, styled the Trinitarians, or Friars of the Holy Trinity, otherwise the Crutched Friars, so called from the cross (Latin cruciati, crossed) embroidered on their habit, came into existence.

Referring to the Franciscans, those who conformed to the austere rules laid down by their founder were denominated Observant Friars, while those who, as time wore on, began to live in convents and coveted lands, chapels, and books, received the name of Conventional Friars. Out of the Franciscans there have sprung two lesser Orders, so to speak, chiefly distinguished by a slight change in the details appertaining to the habit worn by them. These are the Capuchins, so called from the capuce, or pointed cowl, that they wear, and the Cordeliers, from the knotted cord which encircles their waist in place of a girdle. In effect, however, these two offshoots of the Franciscans are the same, and subject to the like rules, as the parent institution.

Having disposed of the Friars, let us now turn to the Monks properly so called. Originally the sole existing order of monks was that of the Benedictines as established by St. Benedict, who introduced the monastic system into Western Europe in the year 529. No less than twelve large Monasteries were raised by him before he died; but notwithstanding the austere rules which obtained among the Benedictines, these were yet considered too lax by some individual members of the Order, with the result that first one and then another “Reformed Order” sprang into existence, the latest being in each case distinguished for a still more rigorous rule than that of its immediate predecessor. Thus, we now have the Carthusians, our English designation for the monks of La Chartreuse near Grenoble, by whom the celebrated liqueur known as Chartreuse is prepared; the Cistercians, or monks of Citeau; and the Cluniacs, or monks of Cluny, respectively named after the vicinity of their original monastery in France; while the Bernardines received their title from St. Bernard, who founded the famous Hospice of Mont St. Bernard in the year 962. From the Carthusians, also, there have sprung the Basilians founded by St. Basil, and from the Cistercians, the Trappists, or monks of La Trappe, originally established in the French district so denominated.

Foremost among the Religious Orders not comprised in any of the brotherhoods cited above are the Jesuists, properly styled “The Society of Jesus,” an organization founded upon a military basis by St. Ignatius Loyola in 1534, which extends its influence all over the globe. Next in point of importance come the Servites, otherwise “The Religious Servants of the Holy Virgin,” established by seven Florentine merchants in 1283; the Passionists, a community of priests solemnly agreed to preach “Jesus Christ and Him crucified,” founded by Paul Francis, better known as St. Paul of the Cross, in 1737; and the Redemptorists, or preachers of the Redemption, also styled the Liguorians, after St. Francis Liguori, who originated this Order in 1732. Each of these, except, of course, the lay members of the Jesuists, are professedly Monks; and yet these are not really Monks, but Friars, because they live in community, and at times mingle freely with the people. In short, they are Missionary Friars.

PAPER AND PRINTING

The word Paper comes from the Latin papyrus, and Greek papyros, the designation of an Egyptian plant from whose reeds the earliest kind of writing material was obtained. Parchment is an Anglicized form of the French parchemin, from the Greek pergamenos, named after the ancient city of Pergamos, in Asia Minor, where the skins of goats were first prepared for writing upon at a time when Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of the papyrus from Egypt.

Hand-paper was originally so called from its watermark, which was that of a hand; Pot-Paper, of a pot; Post-paper, of a post-horn; Crown-paper, of a crown; and Foolscap, of a fool’s head with the cap and bells. India-paper formerly came from the Far East, whereas Nepaul-paper is made in the district of Nepaul, Northern India. Cap-paper is so designated because, prior to being used by grocers for wrapping up sugar and other commodities sold by weight, it is folded into a cap-like form. Among papers of a stiffer kind, that are chiefly intended for drawing upon, we have Elephant, so called from its large size (28 inches by 23), Cartridge-paper, originally manufactured for soldiers’ cartridges, and Bristol-board, formerly made only at Bristol.

By the term Folio, derived from the Latin folium, a leaf, is meant a sheet of paper folded but once, thus making two leaves or four pages; a Quarto (written 4to), is a sheet folded into quarters or four leaves, making eight pages; an Octavo (8vo), so styled in accordance with the Latin octa, eight, one folded into eight leaves or sixteen pages; a Duodecimo (12mo), the Latin for “two and ten,” one making twelve leaves or twenty-four pages, and so forth.

When Caxton set up the first printing press in this country, in the year 1476, there were many among the vulgar who regarded it as an invention of the devil; and the clergy, no doubt, fostered this idea, foreseeing that in the event of the Bible being distributed to the masses by this means, the way would be thrown open to the production of spurious editions of Sacred Writ, and the perversion of religious doctrine, which up to that period had been free to all who chose to attend daily instruction in the monasteries. Hence, printing was popularly described as “The Black Art,” while the boys who took the sheets off the press, from the fact of generally smearing their faces with ink, came to be known as Imps or Devils. This will explain why a printer’s errand-boy still bears the nickname of a Printer’s Devil.

Our Parliamentary Records, Debates, Reports of Meetings, and Accounts, have received the name of Hansards because they are printed by the large printing firm established by Luke Hansard in 1752; whereas a Blue Book is so called on account of its stiff cover of blue paper. The French Government reports are styled Yellow Books for a similar reason. The term Book comes from the Danish bog, a beech-tree, which abounds in Denmark and whose wood is much used for engraving-blocks. The Leaf of a book is in allusion to the ancient custom of writing on the bark of trees; while Volume is derived from the Latin volvo, I roll, relative to the Egyptian papyri, each one of which when rolled up formed a document or volume complete in itself. A storehouse for books is styled a Library, in accordance with the Latin librarium, a book-case, derived in the first instance from liber, a book.