Popular Lectures on Zoonomia

With respect to its influence on the science of medicine, we may observe that, from the time of Hippocrates till almost the present day, medicine has not deserved the name of a science but, as he called it, of a conjectural art. At present however, by the application of the laws of life, and of the new chemistry, there is beginning to appear in physiology and pathology, something like the simplicity and certainty of truth. In proportion as the laws of animal nature come to be ascertained, the study of them will excite more general attention, and will ultimately prove the most popular, as well as the most curious and interesting branch of philosophy.

This must be productive of beneficial consequences to society, since these truths, once impressed upon the mind by conviction, will operate as moral motives, by which the sum of disease and human misery cannot fail to be greatly diminished.

LECTURE XI. OF THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF DISEASES

In the two last lectures I have attempted to investigate the laws of life. I now proceed to the most important part of our course, and for which all the preceding lectures were intended to prepare us; I mean the application of the laws of life to explain the nature and causes of diseases, and the methods of curing them, which must always be imperfect, and conjectural, unless the nature of the diseases themselves be well understood.

We have already seen that life is constantly supported by the action of the external powers which surround us, and that if the action of these powers be properly regulated, and at the same time no other powers be suffered to act on the body, we shall enjoy perfect health, but if, on the contrary, the exciting powers which support life, act either too feebly or too powerfully, then the functions will not be performed with precision and vigour, but irregularly; the mind and body will become deranged, and death will often take place many years before the natural period at which that event might be expected.

As health is the greatest blessing which man can enjoy, it is natural to think, that in the early ages of society, when men began to lose sight of the dictates of nature, and feel the torture of disease, they would regard with gratitude those who had contributed towards their relief, and that they would place their physicians among their heroes and their gods. In the early ages, however, diseases would be very few, for it would not be till civilisation had made considerable progress, that such unnatural modes of life as conduce to their production, would take place.

As the first professors of physic knew nothing of the animal economy, and little of the theory of diseases, it is evident that whatever they did, must have been in consequence of mere random trials. Indeed it is impossible that this or any other art could originate in any other manner. Accordingly history informs us that the ancient nations used to expose their sick in temples, and by the sides of highways, that they might receive the advice of every one that passed.

It would take up too much time to pursue the history of medicine from this rude origin, through all its changes and revolutions, till the present time: let it therefore suffice to say, that after various theories had been invented and overturned, and after one age had destroyed the labours of another, though different branches of the healing art, and particularly anatomy, had been enriched with valuable discoveries, still a rational theory was wanting; there was nothing to guide the practitioner in his way, and we may truly say that till the laws of life, which I have been endeavouring to illustrate, were investigated by Dr. Brown, medicine could boast of no theory which had a title to be called philosophical.

The theories of Stahl, Boerhaave, and Cullen, have passed away, and are almost forgotten, but this, which is founded on nature, and on fact, will, like the Newtonian philosophy, last for ever. It has already influenced the practice of medicine, and is taught in almost all the schools of Europe and America. In this country it seems to have had less attention paid to it than it deserved, because its influence was counteracted by the arrogance and profligacy of its author, as if the grossness of a man's manner affected the conclusiveness of his arguments; but this influence did not extend beyond Britain, while the light of his theory illuminated the opposite hemisphere. And when the manner in which he was persecuted is recollected, the liberal mind will allow something to the deep consciousness of neglected merit.

A circumstance much in favour of this doctrine is, that those who understand its principles thoroughly, are guided by it in their practice with a certainty and success before unknown. I say those who understand its principles, for these were not perfectly understood even by the author himself. He first saw with his mind's eye the grand outline of the system, from which, for want of proper reflection, he often drew wrong deductions, and which he often applied improperly. But whatever errors Brown may have committed in the application of his system, and however short his doctrines may fall of a perfect system of medicine, we may venture to predict that the grand outlines will remain unshaken.

From what has been already shown, it must be evident that if the just degree of excitement could be kept up, mankind would enjoy continual health. But it is difficult, if not impossible, to regulate the action of the exciting powers in this equable manner, and if their action is increased, the first effect they produce on the functions is to increase them, and the next is, to render them disturbed or uneasy; or, in other words, to bring on diseases of increased action, or what have been called inflammatory or phlogistic, both of which terms are improper, as they convey false ideas, and are connected with erroneous theories: Dr. Brown has given the name of sthenic to these diseases, from their consisting in increased strength or action, and this is certainly a more appropriate term. On the contrary, when the action of the exciting powers is diminished more than is natural, the functions become languid and disturbed, and by a still further decrease of the action of these powers, they become irregular and inordinate. This state of the body, which is opposite to the former, Dr. Brown has denominated asthenic.

But the stimulant powers may act so powerfully, and exhaust the excitability to such a degree, that they may overstep the bounds of sthenic or inflammatory disease and bring on debility. Debility may therefore arise either from the stimuli acting too weakly, or from a deficient excitability, while the stimulus is not deficient. Debility produced in the former manner is called direct debility, and in the latter indirect debility.

To explain this more clearly, let us take a common instance. If a person by any means be deprived of the proper quantity of food, he will feel himself enfeebled, and the functions will gradually grow more and more languid, and at last become irregular, and be performed with pain. This state is called direct debility. Here is excitability enough, and even too much, for it has accumulated by the subtraction of a stimulus; but here is a deficiency of excitement from defect of stimulus.

If now we suppose that a person, in good health, begins to take a greater quantity of food than usual, and adds a quantity of wine, all the functions will at first be increased in vigour, but at last they will be irregularly performed, and inflammation, with other symptoms of too great excitement, will be the consequence. This state is called sthenic diathesis or disease. But if the stimulant power be pushed still further, the excitability will become gradually exhausted, till at last there will be too little to produce the healthy actions, even though there may be plenty of stimulus. This state of asthenic diathesis is called indirect debility, because it is not produced by directly subtracting the powers which support life, but indirectly, by over stimulating. An instance of this latter state is afforded by that debility which is the consequence of intoxication.

There is a state however between perfect health and disease, which is called predisposition; and in which, though the functions are undisturbed, the slightest cause will bring on disease. Strictly speaking, there is perhaps only one point, or one degree of excitement, at which the health is perfect: the first alterations from this point, on either side, are scarcely perceptible, but if the morbid causes be continued, the functions will become gradually more and more disturbed, till at last they become so uneasy or painful that they are termed disease.

In order to render what has been said still more plain, it may be proper to make use of an illustration by means of numbers: we must recollect however that it is merely for the sake of illustration, for we have not data to enable us to reduce either the excitability, or excitement, or stimulus, to numerical calculation; if we could do this, the science of medicine would be perfect, and we could cure diseases as easily as we could perform any chemical or philosophical experiment. A very principal object however is to understand the nature of predisposition, and the kind of diathesis, whether sthenic or asthenic, to which it inclines: this not only throws light on the nature of the disease, but affords us the only means of preventing it. When a slight uneasiness or predisposition is felt, it is almost impossible to say from our feelings whether it leads to a sthenic or an asthenic state: here we must be guided chiefly by the exciting powers. If we find that these have acted too powerfully; that is, if we have lived freely, been exposed to heat, and perhaps indulged in some of the unnatural stimuli, such as wine and spirits; and particularly if we previously to the present time perceived the functions to go on with more vigour, our spirits and strength greater, before we experienced the slight disturbance of which we complain, we are verging towards sthenic or inflammatory disease, and therefore to prevent the disease we ought immediately to diminish the action of the exciting powers; the quantity of food ought to be diminished, wine and other liquors abstained from, heat carefully avoided; and even the quantity of blood in the circulating system diminished, if the habit is full and the pulse strong.

On the contrary, if the exciting powers have acted more feebly than is natural; that is, if we have lived on a less nourishing diet, or have taken it in less quantity; if we have been long exposed to cold, without alternating with heat, and other debilitating causes; and if at the same time we find the vigour of the functions diminished, though they are not yet become much disturbed, we are verging towards asthenic disease. To prevent which, we must take a more nutritious diet, and join a portion of wine, and perhaps take some tonic medicines. This however ought to be done gradually, for fear of exhausting the excitability, which in these cases is morbidly accumulated.

It must be evident that the great difficulty here is to determine the nature of the predisposition; for if we make a mistake, instead of preventing, we shall accelerate the disease. For instance, the first slight disturbance of the functions which rises from a sthenic state, often resembles those verging towards a state of debility or asthenia. I have seen various instances arising from plethora, or a sthenic state, where the patient complained of depression of spirits, and inability to move; and, in short, from his own account was labouring under asthenic diathesis: but by inquiring carefully into the action of the exciting causes, examining minutely the state of the pulse and of the functions, I have been convinced that the depression of spirits which he felt, and other symptoms of weakness, depended on fullness, and they have been quickly removed by lowering the diet, administering a laxative, or taking a little blood: whereas if, apprehending from the symptoms that he had laboured under debility, I had ordered him a more generous diet and tonic remedies, an inflammatory disease would have been the consequence, which might have terminated in death.

I have seen various instances where patients have complained of this unusual depression, and inability to move: they have shown me prescriptions in which the stimulant or tonic plan was recommended, but instead of any alleviation the symptoms had become worse from their use. This hint was generally sufficient, for if the disease of predisposition had been asthenic, cordials and tonics ought to have relieved it: if, on inquiry, I found the exciting powers had acted too powerfully, I then, without hesitation, had recourse to the debilitating plan, and with the greatest certainty of success. Before I viewed diseases and their causes in this way, I must confess that I often felt great hesitation in practice; and judging merely from symptoms, which are frequently very fallacious, the operation of a remedy often disappointed me, and I could not pretend to predict the event with the certainty that I now can. This observation is of the greatest consequence in the cure both of predisposition and of disease. Though excitement regulates all the phenomena of life, yet the symptoms of diseases which either its excess or deficiency produces, do not of themselves lead to any proper judgment respecting it. On the contrary their fallacious appearance has proved the source of infinite error.

As excitement both depends on exciting powers and excitability, it is evident that when a middle degree of stimulus acts upon a middle degree of excitability, the most perfect effect will be produced. This point, could we ascertain it, might be called the point of health. For the sake of illustration, we may suppose that the greatest excitability of which the living body is capable is 80 degrees: this may be supposed to be the excitability possessed by the body at the commencement of its life, because no part has then been wasted or exhausted by the action of stimuli. Now, if we suppose a scale of excitability to be formed, and divided into 80 equal parts or degrees, the excitability will be wasted or exhausted in proportion to the application of stimuli, from the beginning to the end of the scale. One degree of exciting power applied takes off one degree of excitability, and every subsequent degree impairs the excitability in proportion to its degree of force. Thus a degree of stimulus or exciting power equal to 10 will reduce the excitability to 70, 20 to 60, 30 to 50, 40 to 40, 50 to 30, 60 to 20, 70 to 10, 80 to 0; and, on the contrary, the subtraction of stimulant power will allow the excitability to accumulate.

[DIAGRAM]

The range of good health is ranked from 30 to 50 degrees in the scale; for perfect health, which consists in the middle point only, or at 40 degrees, rarely occurs; in consequence of the variation of the stimuli to which man is continually exposed, such as meat and drink, heat, exercise, and the emotions of the mind, the excitement commonly fluctuates between 30 and 50 degrees, and yet no particular disturbance of the functions takes place. But when at these points, 30 or 50, predisposition commences, the slightest debilitating cause in the former case, and the slightest stimulating cause in the latter, brings on disease, in which the functions begin to be disturbed in various ways, and this disturbance is always in proportion to the hurting powers which have produced the disease, and the delicacy or importance of the part affected.

The effect produced on the excitability by any stimulus, must evidently be in a ratio compounded of the degree of excitability and the force of the stimulus. The same stimulus will produce greater contractions upon a fibre that is more irritable than upon one which possesses less irritability; and the irritability or excitability of the fibre being given, or remaining the same, the contraction will be in proportion to the strength of the stimulus. Hence it is evident, that the effect or excitement must be in a ratio compounded of the exciting powers and excitability.

Sthenic diathesis and disease is caused by the operation of different exciting powers, which produce too great a degree of excitement in the system: this at first increases all the functions, and, when increased, produces a disturbance and inordinate action of them, which is communicated to the whole body. In diseases of this kind there is often an appearance of debility, but this is extremely fallacious, and arises from the disturbed state of the different functions. Hence it is evidently of the utmost consequence to ascertain carefully whether this debility is real, or the effect of asthenic disease: or whether it is owing to the disturbance of the functions by over stimulating, and in this case fallacious; for should a sthenic disease be treated by stimulants and cordials, the effect would be an aggravation of all the symptoms, and a much higher degree of disease.

Asthenic diathesis and disease is brought on by the excitement of the system being diminished: and this may proceed either from a diminution of common stimulant powers, while the excitability is sufficiently abundant, or it may proceed from an exhausted excitability, while the stimulus is sufficiently abundant. The former is called direct, and the latter indirect debility. The exciting causes therefore of asthenic disease, first impair the functions, then occasion a disturbed or inordinate action of them, giving many of them a false appearance; some of them, for instance, appear to be increased, for in hysteria and epilepsy, which are both diseases of debility, the action of the muscles seems to be preternaturally increased; but this depends chiefly on the accumulated excitability, which gives such a degree of irritability to the system, that the smallest irritation, whether external, such as heat, exercise, &c. or internal, as emotions of the mind, excite a strong spasmodic action, which brings on the symptoms of epilepsy and hysteria. This inordinate action however soon exhausts the morbid excitability, and thus suspends itself, a sleep often follows, from which the patient wakes with only a general sense of languor and debility: but as the same cause still remains, the excitability of the body again becomes morbidly accumulated, and thus the slightest stimulus produces a recurrence of the fit, and the tendency to return will increase with its recurrence, so that at last the slightest imaginable cause will produce it, on account of the power of habit and association.

Gout likewise appears like a sthenic disease, and in inflammation takes place, which resembles pleurisy or peripneumony; but this symptom is fallacious, for it depends on debility, and is only to be cured by means, which in pleurisy and peripneumony, would produce death.

Hence it must be evident that those phenomena of diseases, which we call symptoms, are generally fallacious; but this may be owing to our imperfect knowledge of the animal economy, so that we are not able to explain or understand the manner in which they are produced: we ought however carefully to guard against being misled by them in practice. The great difficulty is to distinguish the nature of the disease, whether it is sthenic or asthenic, or whether it depends on too great excitement, or on debility; for this being once clearly ascertained, we proceed with certainty in our mode of treatment, instead of the random practice, which must be the consequence of not taking a proper view of the laws of life, and the causes of diseases.

The nature of the disease may be generally ascertained, by attending to the habits of the patient, and the manner in which he has lived, as well as to the state of the pulse; but in cases where these circumstances do not render it clear, it may be ascertained, beyond a doubt, by a trifling degree of stimulus, as, for instance, by any cordial, as a little wine or spirits. If the disease be of an inflammatory or sthenic kind, the symptoms will be aggravated, and the cordial will not produce its usual pleasant effects on the system; but on the contrary, if the nature of the disease be asthenic, then the usual pleasant effects of the cordial will be perceived, and the pain and other symptoms will be alleviated. This trial, which is soon made, and without danger, will determine our plan of cure, and we can then proceed with the most perfect certainty. Thus you will see that this view we have taken leads to a very different and much more rational plan of practice than is generally followed, in which the most judicious physicians confess that they have no clue to guide them; and complain that the science of medicine consists merely in a number of insulated facts, not connected by any theory: that they merely prescribe a remedy because they have seen it of use in an apparently similar state, but that they have no certainty of its producing a similar effect in the cases in which they prescribe it. This all depends on trusting to the fallacious appearance of symptoms, and not having taken a proper view of the laws of life, or the manner in which the exciting powers act on living bodies.

After these observations on the diagnosis, or the method of distinguishing the nature of diseases, I shall proceed to consider more particularly the nature of sthenic diseases, and the methods of curing them, which will occupy the remainder of our time this evening.

The powers or causes, which by their action produce inflammatory or sthenic diseases, are, first, heat, which is a very frequent cause, particularly when it succeeds cold; for the cold accumulates the excitability, and then renders the whole body, or a part, more liable to be affected by the heat afterwards applied. In this way is produced rheumatism, catarrh, or, as it is commonly called, a cold, and peripneumony. These complaints have been often attributed to cold, but I believe that there never was a well attested instance where cold alone, without being either followed by heat or some other stimulus, produced a real sthenic, or inflammatory disease. This is not merely a distinction, it is a circumstance of the utmost importance, because it influences the mode of practice to be pursued. Heat is one of the exciting or stimulant powers which support life, and one of the most powerful of these stimulants; but cold is only a diminution of it: how then can this produce a sthenic state, or a state of too high excitement? The blood is one of the exciting powers, which, by its continual circulation supports life; but surely if we abstracted a quantity of this fluid from the body, no person will be bold enough to say, that we by that means should produce an inflammatory disease. Cold renders the body more liable to be affected by heat, or any other stimulus applied, but does not of itself produce any stimulant or inflammatory effects.

To see more clearly the manner in which cold acts, let us inquire how it produces or contributes towards the production of catarrh. When we go into the cold air, at every respiration we take a quantity of it into the lungs, which brushes over the surface of the mucous membrane that lines the nostrils and trachea, and thus, robbing them of their heat, allows the excitability to accumulate. But we feel no fever, no sense of tightness or stuffing, nor any other symptom of catarrh, so long as we continue in the cold. If however we afterwards go into a warm room, and particularly near a fire, we receive by the act of respiration the warm air into those very parts which have been previously exposed to cold, and whose excitability is consequently accumulated. The first effect we perceive is a glow of the parts, which is by no means unpleasant, this however increases; and, in the course of half an hour or an hour, a sense of dryness and huskiness comes on, with a sensation of stuffing in the nostrils, and a tendency to a short dry cough: often likewise, if the exposure to cold has been considerable, and the heat afterwards applied great and sudden, we experience a shivering, and other symptoms of fever. These symptoms are all increased by taking into the stomach any liquid that is either of warm temperature or stimulating quality, or particularly both; we spend a restless night, and awake with all the symptoms of a catarrh, or cold, as it is improperly called. For it is evidently an inflammatory fever, and can be speedily cured by the debilitating plan, and particularly by keeping in a moderately cool place, where the temperature is equable, and not subject to alternations of heat and cold.