The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 08 of 12)

850

Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.

851

P. Einhorn, Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae, reprinted in Scriptores rerum Livonicarum, vol. ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn's work is dated 17th July 1636.

852

A. Biet, Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l'Isle de Cayenne (Paris, 1664), p. 361.

853

J. Chaffanjon, L'Orénoque et le Caura (Paris, 1889), p. 203.

854

Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi. (1839) p. 75.

855

G. Osculati, Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni (Milan, 1850), p. 114.

856

J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino, xv. (Buenos Ayres, 1895) p. 740.

857

Ch. Wiener, Pérou et Bolivie (Paris, 1880), p. 369.

858

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) pp. 335 sqq.

859

Fr. Coreal, Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Amsterdam, 1722), ii. 132.

860

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 sq.

861

H. R. Schoolcraft, op. cit. iii. 113.

862

Rev. J. L. Wilson, Western Africa (London, 1856), p. 210.

863

J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d'Assinie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 sq.

864

D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (London, 1857), p. 615.

865

Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (London, 1906), p. 64.

866

C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), p. 200.

867

Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 sq. Compare Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” Journal of the African Society, No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.

868

M. Merker, Die Masai (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not infrequent. See Adonis, Attis, Osiris,2 pp. 71 sq.

869

J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé (Liége, 1907), p. 102; Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo, La Religion (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.

870

Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” Les Missions Catholiques, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,” Les Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls, etc.).

871

Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” Les Missions Catholiques, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 sq., 283, 291.

872

Rev. J. Sibree, The Great African Island (London, 1880), p. 270.

873

“Das Volk der Tanala,” Globus, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.

874

W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.

875

T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 159.

876

(Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.

877

Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar, Reungao, Sédang,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143 sq.

878

E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” Revue de l'histoire des Religions, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leurs superstitions,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxviii. (1896) p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted again.

879

F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 164; id., Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 67).

880

L. de Freycinet, Voyage autour du Monde, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595 sq.

881

K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean (Leipsic, 1873), pp. 87 sq., 193. These sacred animals were called kalids. A somewhat different account of the kalids of the Pelew Islanders is given by J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 sqq.).

882

W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiv. (1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably the source of, Mr. Batten's account cited above (pp. 216 sq.).

883

C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, In Centraal Borneo (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; id., Quer durch Borneo (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be in them.

884

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) p. 193.

885

E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), p. 143.

886

F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,” Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.

887

Max Krieger, Neu-Guinea (Berlin, n. d.), p. 404.

888

K. Vetter, Komm herüber und hilf uns! iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22. Compare id., in Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land, 1897, pp. 87 sq.; B. Hagen, Unter den Papuas (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.

889

H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 310.

890

R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Neu-Guinea Küste,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xiii. (1900) p. 40.

891

Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 sq.

892

Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.

893

R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 sq.

894

R. H. Codrington, op. cit. p. 177.

895

R. H. Codrington, op. cit. p. 33. East Indian evidence of the belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken (“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” De Indische Gids, June 1884, pp. 988 sqq.), who argues that this belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism. Compare the same writer's article “Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 sqq. (separate reprint from Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië, 5e Volgreeks ii.). Wilken's view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146 sq.). See further, Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 45 sqq.

896

The Laws of Manu, ii. 201.

897

Id., v. 164.

898

Id., xi. 25.

899

Id., xii. 39-78.

900

Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Buddhism, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 111 sq. Full, if not always authentic, particulars of the Buddha's manifold transmigrations are contained in the Jatakas, a large collection of stories which has been completely translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).

901

Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, De Pythagorica vita, xiv. 63; Porphyry, Vita Pythag. 26 sq.; Ovid, Metamorph. xv. 160 sqq. According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered his personal identity in four different human lives before he was born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 1. 4 sq.). See further E. Rohde, Psyche3 (Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 sqq.

902

Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 1. 4 and 36.

903

Jamblichus, De Pythagorica vita, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.

904

Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.

905

Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 213 sq., frag. 137.

906

Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.

907

Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9; H. Diels, op. cit. i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.

908

As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, Psyche3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 sqq.

909

Plutarch, De exilio, 17; id., De esu carnium, i. 7. 4; Clement of Alexandria, Strom. iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus, Refutatio omnium Haeresium, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 207 sq., fragments 115, 119.

910

Porphyry, De antro nympharum, 8.

911

H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 208 sq., frag. 121.

912

Clement of Alexandria, Strom. iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123, pp. 516 sq., 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 sq., fragments 115, 124, 144-147.

913

Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See Aristotle, Problem. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.

914

Stobaeus, Eclogae, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke); Plutarch, De esu carnium ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, op. cit. i. p. 210, frag. 126.

915

It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was born somewhere about the year 480 b. c. Hence it is difficult to suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter. As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, Buddha5 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.

916

Plutarch, Adversus Coloten, 10; Aristotle, De Xenophane, 2, p. 975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 175, 176, fragments 8 and 12.

917

The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities and the fragments of Empedocles's own writings, is fully collected by H. Diels in his excellent work Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 sqq., 173 sqq. Compare Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 1 sqq.; H. Ritter et L. Preller, Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta, Editio Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 sqq.; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 sqq.

918

Herbert Spencer, First Principles, Third Edition (London, 1875), pp. 536 sq.

919

On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?) raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of Matter,” in Darwin and Modern Science (Cambridge, 1909), pp. 565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier, more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord with which the universe has reached its present state, and is passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of primaeval simplicity?”

920

H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 190 sqq.; Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 sqq.; H. Ritter und L. Preller, Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 sq.; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 sqq.

921

Aristotle, Physic. Auscult. ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 sqq., ed. Im. Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο, ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical Sketch” prefixed to The Origin of Species with the remark, “We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle's reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would have included him among the pioneers of evolution.

922

Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 2. 62; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 205, frag. 112. Compare The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 390.

923

Plato, Phaedo, pp. 81 b-84 c; Republic, x. pp. 617 d-620 d; Timaeus, pp. 41 d-42 d; Phaedrus, p. 249 b.

924

This is the view of E. Zeller (Die Philosophie der Griechen, ii.3 Leipsic, 1875, pp. 706 sqq.), Sir W. E. Geddes (on Plato, Phaedo, p. 81 e), and J. Adam (on Plato, Republic, x. p. 618 a). We have no right, with some interpreters ancient and modern, to dissolve the theory into an allegory because it does not square with our ideas.

925

In our own time the theory of transmigration is favoured by Dr. McTaggart, who argues that human beings may have lived before birth and may live many, perhaps an infinite number of, lives after death. Like Plato he further suggests that the nature of the body into which a person transmigrates at death may be appropriate to and determined by his or her character in the preceding life. See J. McT. Ellis McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion (London, 1906), pp. 112-139. However, Dr. McTaggart seems only to contemplate the transmigration of human souls into human bodies; he does not discuss the possibility of their transmigration into animals.

926

This is known, for example, of the Yuchi Indians, for among them “members of each clan will not do violence to wild animals having the form and name of their totem. For instance, the Bear clan people never molest bears.” See F. G. Speck, Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 70. But in spite of the attention which has been paid to American totemism, we possess very little information as to the vital point of the system, the relation between a man and his totemic animal. Compare Totemism and Exogamy, iii. 88 sq., 311.

927

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 85 sqq. However, Collins reports that among the natives of New South Wales the women were “compelled to sit in their canoe, exposed to the fervour of the mid-day sun, hour after hour, chaunting their little song, and inviting the fish beneath them to take their bait” (D. Collins, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, London, 1804, p. 387). This may have been a form of conciliation like that employed by the American Indians towards the fish and game. But the account is not precise enough to allow us to speak with confidence. It is sometimes reported that the Australians attempt to appease the kangaroos which they have killed, assuring the animals of their affection and begging them not to come back after death to torment them. But the writer who mentions the report disbelieves it. See Dom Théophile Bérengier, in Les Missions Catholiques, x. (1878) p. 197.

928

G. Catlin, O-Kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans (London, 1867), Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, Travels to the Source of the Missouri River (London, 1815), i. 205 sq.

929

A. Bastian, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte, 1870-71, p. 59. J. Reinegg (Beschreibung des Kaukasus, Gotha, St. Petersburg, and Hildesheim, 1796-97, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.

930

A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vi. (Jena, 1871) pp. 632, note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), pp. 406 sq., compare p. 207; B. Bergmann, Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken (Riga, 1804-5), ii. 80 sqq., 122; P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.

931

W. E. Marshall, Travels amongst the Todas (London, 1873), pp. 129 sq.

932

W. E. Marshall, op. cit. pp. 80 sq., 130.

933

R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii. (1882-84) pp. 336 sq.

934

Mutton appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (R. W. Felkin, op. cit. p. 307), but this is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.

935

See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites2 (London, 1894), pp. 344 sqq. As to communion by means of an external application, see above, pp. 162 sqq.

936

See above, pp. 190, 192.

937

Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. p. 91, § 555 (March 1885).

938

See Ch. Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities (London, 1882-1883), iii. 195 sq. (Bohn's ed.); Rev. C. Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds (London, 1886), p. 36; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 288 sqq. The names for the bird are βασιλίσκος, regulus, rex avium (Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 90, x. 203), re di siepe, reyezuelo, roitelet, roi des oiseaux, Zaunkönig, etc. On the custom of hunting the wren see further N. W. Thomas, “The Scape-Goat in European Folklore,” Folk-lore, xvii. (1906) pp. 270 sqq., 280; Miss L. Eckstein, Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (London, 1906), pp. 172 sqq. Miss Eckstein suggests that the killing of the bird called “the king” may have been a mitigation of an older custom of killing the real king.