Geological Observations on South America

Ascending to the older tertiary formations, I will not again recapitulate the remarks already given at the end of the Fifth Chapter, – on their great extent, especially along the shores of the Atlantic – on their antiquity, perhaps corresponding with that of the eocene deposits of Europe, – on the almost entire dissimilarity, though the formations are apparently contemporaneous, of the fossils from the eastern and western coasts, as is likewise the case, even in a still more marked degree, with the shells now living in these opposite though approximate seas, – on the climate of this period not having been more tropical than what might have been expected from the latitudes of the places under which the deposits occur; a circumstance rendered well worthy of notice, from the contrast with what is known to have been the case during the older tertiary periods of Europe, and likewise from the fact of the southern hemisphere having suffered at a much later period, apparently at the same time with the northern hemisphere, a colder or more equable temperature, as shown by the zones formerly affected by ice-action. Nor will I recapitulate the proofs of the bottom of the sea, both on the eastern and western coast, having subsided seven or eight hundred feet during this tertiary period; the movement having apparently been co-extensive, or nearly co-extensive, with the deposits of this age. Nor will I again give the facts and reasoning on which the proposition was founded, that when the bed of the sea is either stationary or rising, circumstances are far less favourable than when its level is sinking, to the accumulation of conchiferous deposits of sufficient thickness, extension, and hardness to resist, when upheaved, the ordinary vast amount of denudation. We have seen that the highly remarkable fact of the absence of any EXTENSIVE formations containing recent shells, either on the eastern or western coasts of the continent, – though these coasts now abound with living mollusca, – though they are, and apparently have always been, as favourable for the deposition of sediment as they were when the tertiary formations were copiously deposited, – and though they have been upheaved to an amount quite sufficient to bring up strata from the depths the most fertile for animal life – can be explained in accordance with the above proposition. As a deduction, it was also attempted to be shown, first, that the want of close sequence in the fossils of successive formations, and of successive stages in the same formation, would follow from the improbability of the same area continuing slowly to subside from one whole period to another, or even during a single entire period; and secondly, that certain epochs having been favourable at distant points, in the same quarter of the world for the synchronous accumulation of fossiliferous strata, would follow from movements of subsidence having apparently, like those of elevation, contemporaneously affected very large areas.

There is another point which deserves some notice, namely, the analogy between the upper parts of the Patagonian tertiary formation, as well as of the upper possibly contemporaneous beds at Chiloe and Concepcion, with the great gypseous formation of Cordillera; for in both formations, the rocks, in their fusible nature, in their containing gypsum, and in many other characters, show a connection, either intimate or remote, with volcanic action; and as the strata in both were accumulated during subsidence, it appears at first natural to connect this sinking movement with a state of high activity in the neighbouring volcanoes. During the cretaceo-oolitic period this certainly appears to have been the case at the Puente del Inca, judging from the number of intercalated lava-streams in the lower 3,000 feet of strata; but generally, the volcanic orifices seem at this time to have existed as submarine solfataras, and were certainly quiescent compared with their state during the accumulation of the porphyritic conglomerate formation. During the deposition of the tertiary strata we know that at S. Cruz, deluges of basaltic lava were poured forth; but as these lie in the upper part of the series, it is possible that the subsidence may at that time have ceased: at Chiloe, I was unable to ascertain to what part of the series the pile of lavas belonged. The Uspallata tuffs and great streams of submarine lavas, were probably intermediate in age between the cretaceo- oolitic and older tertiary formations, and we know from the buried trees that there was a great subsidence during their accumulation; but even in this case, the subsidence may not have been strictly contemporaneous with the great volcanic eruptions, for we must believe in at least one intercalated period of elevation, during which the ground was upraised on which the now buried trees grew. I have been led to make these remarks, and to throw some doubt on the strict contemporaneousness of high volcanic activity and movements of subsidence, from the conviction impressed on my mind by the study of coral formations, that these two actions do not generally go on synchronously; – on the contrary, that in volcanic districts, subsidence ceases as soon as the orifices burst forth into renewed action, and only recommences when they again have become dormant. ("The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.")

At a later period, the Pampean mud, of estuary origin, was deposited over a wide area, – in one district conformably on the underlying old tertiary strata, and in another district unconformably on them, after their upheaval and denudation. During and before the accumulation, however, of these old tertiary strata, and, therefore, at a very remote period, sediment, strikingly resembling that of the Pampas, was deposited; showing during how long a time in this case the same agencies were at work in the same area. The deposition of the Pampean estuary mud was accompanied, at least in the southern parts of the Pampas, by an elevatory movement, so that the M. Hermoso beds probably were accumulated after the upheaval of those round the S. Ventana; and those at P. Alta after the upheaval of the M. Hermoso strata; but there is some reason to suspect that one period of subsidence intervened, during which mud was deposited over the coarse sand of the Barrancas de S. Gregorio, and on the higher parts of Banda Oriental. The mammiferous animals characteristic of this formation, many of which differ as much from the present inhabitants of South America, as do the eocene mammals of Europe from the present ones of that quarter of the globe, certainly co-existed at B. Blanca with twenty species of mollusca, one balanus, and two corals, all now living in the adjoining sea: this is likewise the case in Patagonia with the Macrauchenia, which co-existed with eight shells, still the commonest kinds on that coast. I will not repeat what I have elsewhere said, on the place of habitation, food, wide range, and extinction of the numerous gigantic mammifers, which at this late period inhabited the two Americas.

The nature and grouping of the shells embedded in the old tertiary formations of Patagonia and Chile show us, that the continent at that period must have stood only a few fathoms below its present level, and that afterwards it subsided over a wide area, seven or eight hundred feet. The manner in which it has since been rebrought up to its actual level, was described in detail in the First and Second Chapters. It was there shown that recent shells are found on the shores of the Atlantic, from Tierra del Fuego northward for a space of at least 1,180 nautical miles, and at the height of about 100 feet in La Plata, and of 400 feet in Patagonia. The elevatory movements on this side of the continent have been slow; and the coast of Patagonia, up to the height in one part of 950 feet and in another of 1,200 feet, is modelled into eight great, step-like, gravel-capped plains, extending for hundreds of miles with the same heights; this fact shows that the periods of denudation (which, judging from the amount of matter removed, must have been long continued) and of elevation were synchronous over surprisingly great lengths of coasts. On the shores of the Pacific, upraised shells of recent species, generally, though not always, in the same proportional numbers as in the adjoining sea, have actually been found over a north and south space of 2,075 miles, and there is reason to believe that they occur over a space of 2,480 miles. The elevation on this western side of the continent has not been equable; at Valparaiso, within the period during which upraised shells have remained undecayed on the surface, it has been 1,300 feet, whilst at Coquimbo, 200 miles northward, it has been within this same period only 252 feet. At Lima, the land has been uplifted at least 80 feet since Indian man inhabited that district; but the level within historical times apparently has subsided. At Coquimbo, in a height of 364 feet, the elevation has been interrupted by five periods of comparative rest. At several places the land has been lately, or still is, rising both insensibly and by sudden starts of a few feet during earthquake-shocks; this shows that these two kinds of upward movement are intimately connected together. For a space of 775 miles, upraised recent shells are found on the two opposite sides of the continent; and in the southern half of this space, it may be safely inferred from the slope of the land up to the Cordillera, and from the shells found in the central part of Tierra del Fuego, and high up the River Santa Cruz, that the entire breadth of the continent has been uplifted. From the general occurrence on both coasts of successive lines of escarpments, of sand-dunes and marks of erosion, we must conclude that the elevatory movement has been normally interrupted by periods, when the land either was stationary, or when it rose at so slow a rate as not to resist the average denuding power of the waves, or when it subsided. In the case of the present high sea-cliffs of Patagonia and in other analogous instances, we have seen that the difficulty in understanding how strata can be removed at those depths under the sea, at which the currents and oscillations of the water are depositing a smooth surface of mud, sand, and sifted pebbles, leads to the suspicion that the formation or denudation of such cliffs has been accompanied by a sinking movement.

In South America, everything has taken place on a grand scale, and all geological phenomena are still in active operation. We know how violent at the present day the earthquakes are, we have seen how great an area is now rising, and the plains of tertiary origin are of vast dimensions; an almost straight line can be drawn from Tierra del Fuego for 1,600 miles northward, and probably for a much greater distance, which shall intersect no formation older than the Patagonian deposits; so equable has been the upheaval of the beds, that throughout this long line, not a fault in the stratification or abrupt dislocation was anywhere observable. Looking to the basal, metamorphic, and plutonic rocks of the continent, the areas formed of them are likewise vast; and their planes of cleavage and foliation strike over surprisingly great spaces in uniform directions. The Cordillera, with its pinnacles here and there rising upwards of twenty thousand feet above the level of the sea, ranges in an unbroken line from Tierra del Fuego, apparently to the Arctic circle. This grand range has suffered both the most violent dislocations, and slow, though grand, upward and downward movements in mass; I know not whether the spectacle of its immense valleys, with mountain-masses of once liquified and intrusive rocks now bared and intersected, or whether the view of those plains, composed of shingle and sediment hence derived, which stretch to the borders of the Atlantic Ocean, is best adapted to excite our astonishment at the amount of wear and tear which these mountains have undergone.

The Cordillera from Tierra del Fuego to Mexico, is penetrated by volcanic orifices, and those now in action are connected in great trains. The intimate relation between their recent eruptions and the slow elevation of the continent in mass, appears to me highly important, for no explanation of the one phenomenon can be considered as satisfactory which is not applicable to the other. (On the Connection of certain Volcanic Phenomena in South America: "Geological Transactions" volume 5 page 609.) The permanence of the volcanic action on this chain of mountains is, also, a striking fact; first, we have the deluges of submarine lavas alternating with the porphyritic conglomerate strata, then occasionally feldspathic streams and abundant mineral exhalations during the gypseous or cretaceo- oolitic period: then the eruptions of the Uspallata range, and at an ancient but unknown period, when the sea came up to the eastern foot of the Cordillera, streams of basaltic lava at the foot of the Portillo range; then the old tertiary eruptions; and lastly, there are here and there amongst the mountains, much worn and apparently very ancient volcanic formations without any craters; there are, also, craters quite extinct, and others in the condition of solfataras, and others occasionally or habitually in fierce action. Hence it would appear that the Cordillera has been, probably with some quiescent periods, a source of volcanic matter from an epoch anterior to our cretaceo-oolitic formation to the present day; and now the earthquakes, daily recurrent on some part of the western coast, give little hope that the subterranean energy is expended.

Recurring to the evidence by which it was shown that some at least of the parallel ridges, which together compose the Cordillera, were successively and slowly upthrown at widely different periods; and that the whole range certainly once, and almost certainly twice, subsided some thousand feet, and being then brought up by a slow movement in mass, again, during the old tertiary formations, subsided several hundred feet, and again was brought up to its present level by a slow and often interrupted movement; we see how opposed is this complicated history of changes slowly effected, to the views of those geologists who believe that this great mountain-chain was formed in late times by a single blow. I have endeavoured elsewhere to show, that the excessively disturbed condition of the strata in the Cordillera, so far from indicating single periods of extreme violence, presents insuperable difficulties, except on the admission that the masses of once liquified rocks of the axes were repeatedly injected with intervals sufficiently long for their successive cooling and consolidation. ("Geological Transactions" volume 5 page 626.) Finally, if we look to the analogies drawn from the changes now in progress in the earth's crust, whether to the manner in which volcanic matter is erupted, or to the manner in which the land is historically known to have risen and sunk: or again, if we look to the vast amount of denudation which every part of the Cordillera has obviously suffered, the changes through which it has been brought into its present condition, will appear neither to have been too slowly effected, nor to have been too complicated.

NOTE.

As, both in France and England, translations of a passage in Professor Ehrenberg's Memoir, often referred to in the Fourth Chapter of this volume, have appeared, implying that Professor Ehrenberg believes, from the character of the infusoria, that the Pampean formation was deposited by a sea-debacle rushing over the land, I may state, on the authority of a letter to me, that these translations are incorrect. The following is the passage in question: —

"Durch Beachtung der mikroscopischen Formen hat sich nun feststellen lassen, das die Mastodonten-Lager am La Plata und die Knochen-Lager am Monte Hermoso, who wie die der Riesen-Gurtelthiere in den Dunenhugeln bei Bahia Blanca, beides in Patagonien, unveranderte brakische Susswasserbildungen sind, die einst wohl sammtlich zum obersten Fluthgebiethe des Meeres im tieferen Festlande gehorten." – "Monatsberichten der konigl. Akad. etc." zu Berlin vom April 1845.

INDEX

Abich, on a new variety of feldspar.

Abrolhos islands.

Absence of recent formations on the S. American coasts.

Aguerros on elevation of Imperial.

Albite, constituent mineral in andesite. – in rocks of Tierra del Fuego. – in porphyries. – crystals of, with orthite.

Alison, Mr., on elevation of Valparaiso.

Alumina, sulphate of.

Ammonites from Concepcion.

Amolanas, Las.

Amygdaloid, curious varieties of.

Amygdaloids of the Uspallata range. – of Copiapo.

Andesite of Chile. – in the valley of Maypu. – of the Cumbre pass. – of the Uspallata range. – of Los Hornos. – of Copiapo.

Anhydrite, concretions of.

Araucaria, silicified wood of.

Arica, elevation of.

Arqueros, mines of.

Ascension, gypsum deposited on. – laminated volcanic rocks of.

Augite in fragments, in gneiss. – with albite, in lava.

Austin, Mr. R.A.C., on bent cleavage lamina.

Austin, Captain, on sea-bottom.

Australia, foliated rocks of.

Azara labiata, beds of, at San Pedro.

Baculites vagina.

Bahia Blanca, elevation of. – formations near. – character of living shells of.

Bahia (Brazil), elevation near. – crystalline rocks of.

Ballard, M., on the precipitation of sulphate of soda.

Banda Oriental, tertiary formations of. – crystalline rocks of.

Barnacles above sea-level. – adhering to upraised shells.

Basalt of S. Cruz. – streams of, in the Portillo range. – in the Uspallata range.

Basin chains of Chile.

Beagle Channel.

Beaumont, Elie de, on inclination of lava-streams. – on viscid quartz-rocks.

Beech-tree, leaves of fossil.

Beechey, Captain, on sea-bottom.

Belcher, Lieutenant, on elevated shells from Concepcion.

Bella Vista, plain of.

Benza, Dr., on decomposed granite.

Bettington, Mr., on quadrupeds transported by rivers.

Blake, Mr., on the decay of elevated shells near Iquique. – on nitrate of soda.

Bole.

Bollaert, Mr., on mines of Iquique.

Bones, silicified. – fossil, fresh condition of.

Bottom of sea off Patagonia.

Bougainville, on elevation of the Falkland islands.

Boulder formation of S. Cruz. – of Falkland islands. – anterior to certain extinct quadrupeds. – of Tierra del Fuego.

Boulders in the Cordillera. – transported by earthquake-waves. – in fine-grained tertiary deposits.

Brande, Mr., on a mineral spring.

Bravais, M., on elevation of Scandinavia.

Brazil, elevation of. – crystalline rocks of.

Broderip, Mr., on elevated shells from Concepcion.

Brown, Mr. R., on silicified wood of Uspallata range.

Brown, on silicified wood.

Bucalema, elevated shells near.

Buch, Von, on cleavage. – on cretaceous fossils of the Cordillera. – on the sulphureous volcanoes of Java.

Buenos Ayres.

Burchell, Mr., on elevated shells of Brazil.

Byron, on elevated shells.

Cachapual, boulders in valley of.

Caldcleugh, Mr., on elevation of Coquimbo. – on rocks of the Portillo range.

Callao, elevation near. – old town of.

Cape of Good Hope, metamorphic rocks of.

Carcharias megalodon.

Carpenter, Dr., on microscopic organisms.

Castro (Chiloe), beds near.

Cauquenes Baths, boulders near.

– pebbles in porphyry near.

– volcanic formation near.

– stratification near.

Caves above sea-level.

Cervus pumilus, fossil-horns of.

Chevalier, M., on elevation near Lima.

Chile, structure of country between the Cordillera and the Pacific. – tertiary formations of. – crystalline rocks in. – central, geology of. – northern, geology of.

Chiloe, gravel on coast. – elevation of. – tertiary formation of. – crystalline rocks of.

Chlorite-schist, near M. Video.

Chonos archipelago, tertiary formations of. – crystalline rocks of.

Chupat, Rio, scoriae transported by.

Claro, Rio, fossiliferous beds of.

Clay-shale of Los Hornos.

Clay-slate, formation of, Tierra del Fuego. – of Concepcion. – feldspathic, of Chile. – of the Uspallata range. – black siliceous, band of, in porphyritic formations of Chile.

Claystone porphyry, formation of, in Chile. – origin of. – eruptive sources of.

Cleavage, definition of.

– at Bahia.

– Rio de Janeiro.

– Maldonado.

– Monte Video.

– S. Guitru-gueyu.

– Falkland I.

– Tierra del Fuego.

– Chonos I.

– Chiloe.

– Concepcion.

– Chile.

– discussion on.

Cleavage-laminae superficially bent.

Cliffs, formation of.

Climate, late changes in. – of Chile during tertiary period.

Coal of Concepcion.

– S. Lorenzo.

Coast-denudation of St. Helena.

Cobija, elevation of.

Colombia, cretaceous formation of.

Colonia del Sacramiento, elevation of.

– Pampean formation near Colorado, Rio, gravel of.

– sand-dunes of.

– Pampean formation near.

Combarbala.

Concepcion, elevation of. – deposits of. – crystalline rocks of.

Conchalee, gravel-terraces of.

Concretions of gypsum, at Iquique. – in sandstone at S. Cruz. – in tufaceous tuff of Chiloe. – in gneiss. – in claystone-porphyry at Port Desire. – in gneiss at Valparaiso. – in metamorphic rocks. – of anhydrite. – relations of, to veins.

Conglomerate claystone of Chile. – of Tenuyan. – of the Cumbre Pass. – of Rio Claro. – of Copiapo.

Cook, Captain, on form of sea-bottom.

Copiapo, elevation of. – tertiary formations of. – secondary formations of.

Copper, sulphate of. – native, at Arqueros. – mines of, at Panuncillo. – veins, distribution of.

Coquimbo, elevation and terraces of. – tertiary formations of. – secondary formations of.

Corallines living on pebbles.

Cordillera, valleys bordered by gravel fringes. – basal strata of. – fossils of. – elevation of. – gypseous formations of. – claystone-porphyries of. – andesitic rocks of. – volcanoes of.

Coste, M., on elevation of Lemus.

Coy inlet, tertiary formation of.

Crassatella Lyellii.

Cruickshanks, Mr., on elevation near Lima.

Crystals of feldspar, gradual formation of, at Port Desire.

Cumbre, Pass of, in Cordillera.

Cuming, Mr., on habits of the Mesodesma. – on range of living shells on west coast.

Dana, Mr., on foliated rocks. – on amygdaloids.

Darwin, Mount.

D'Aubuisson, on concretions. – on foliated rocks. Decay, gradual, of upraised shells.

Decomposition of granite rocks.

De la Beche, Sir H., his theoretical researches in geology. – on the action of salt on calcareous rocks. – on bent cleavage-laminae.

Denudation on coast of Patagonia. – great powers of. – of the Portillo range.

Deposits, saline.

Despoblado, valley of.

Detritus, nature of, in Cordillera.

Devonshire, bent cleavage in.

Dikes, in gneiss of Brazil. – near Rio de Janeiro. – pseudo, at Port Desire. – in Tierra del Fuego. – in Chonos archipelago, containing quartz. – near Concepcion, with quartz. – granitic-porphyritic, at Valparaiso. – rarely vesicular in Cordillera. – absent in the central ridges of the Portillo pass. – of the Portillo range, with grains of quartz. – intersecting each other often. – numerous at Copiapo.

Domeyko, M., on the silver mines of Coquimbo. on the fossils of Coquimbo.

D'Orbigny, M. A., on upraised shells of Monte Video. – on elevated shells at St. Pedro. – on elevated shells near B. Ayres. – on elevation of S. Blas. – on the sudden elevation of La Plata. – on elevated shells near Cobija. – on elevated shells near Arica. – on the climate of Peru. – on salt deposits of Cobija. – on crystals of gypsum in salt-lakes. – on absence of gypsum in the Pampean formation. – on fossil remains from Bahia Blanca. – on fossil remains from the banks of the Parana. – on the geology of St. Fe. – on the age of Pampean formation. – on the Mastodon Andium. – on the geology of the Rio Negro. – on the character of the Patagonian fossils. – on fossils from Concepcion. – from Coquimbo. – from Payta. – on fossil tertiary shells of Chile. – on cretaceous fossils of Tierra del Fuego. – from the Cordillera of Chile.

Earth, marine origin of.

Earthenware, fossil.

Earthquake, effect of, at S. Maria. – elevation during, at Lemus. – of 1822, at Valparaiso. – effects of, in shattering surface. – fissures made by. – probable effects on cleavage.

Earthquakes in Pampas.