A History of Sarawak under Its Two White Rajahs 1839-1908

But Sarawak is placing Borneo once more to the fore amongst the pepper producing countries of the far East, and in 1907 exported 5177 tons, as against 400 tons in 1886. After many previous failures the foundations of this large industry, which is entirely in the hands of the Chinese, were laid in 1876 by the Rajah in conjunction with certain local Chinese merchants.

As with sago and pepper, Borneo is essentially a rubber producing country, and it is to be hoped when the time arrives, and as yet it appears to be far from being in view, that the natural product is worked out, it will be more than replaced by cultivated rubber. The Borneo Company have laid out extensive plantations, that give promise of a paying and lasting industry.

With the exception of the cultivation of sago, agriculture in Sarawak is, and will remain dependent upon imported labour. It is not in the nature of the Malay, whose wants are so few and simple that they are procured by a minimum of exertion, to undertake any work requiring persistent and diligent labour; and no more is it in the nature of the Sea-Dayak, though he is not afraid of hard work. Having finished his farming and gathered his harvest the latter prefers an occupation that, whilst bringing in a fair profit, will gratify his proneness for roaming. The native methods of rice growing are crude and wasteful, and attempts to improve these have failed, as have all attempts to introduce Chinese for the purpose of cultivating rice, with the idea of establishing an agricultural industry for which there is so much room and need in Sarawak. The Malays and Dayaks, like the Kayans and Melanaus, produce barely enough rice for their own consumption, and rice figures as the biggest item in the imports of a country which is capable of producing a considerable quantity more than it needs.

Sugar cane grows well, but enterprise in its production has probably been damped by the failure, through mismanagement, of an English Company, which, in 1864, started a large plantation on about the very worst soil that could have been selected. Tobacco planting proved to be a failure, and a costly experiment to the Government. Coffee and tea grow well on high ground, but the country has little elevated plateau land suitable for its cultivation. Gambir is a paying product, but the cultivation of pepper has proved more attractive to the Chinese, though the production of gambir has been fairly well maintained at over 1000 tons yearly. Tapioca, cotton (which in former days was largely exported from Bruni), the cocoa-nut, the areca or pinang, and the oil or soap palms all grow well. Ramie is being cultivated by an English Company in the Lawas, and experiments have shown that this plant will grow well. The sisal aloe grows freely, and on poor soil. Pine-apples are largely cultivated for canning. The fruits and vegetables common to all countries in the Malayan Archipelago abound in Sarawak.

The land regulations are liberal and fair. Bona fide planters receive every encouragement, though none is held out to speculators in land. The indiscriminate alienation of large tracts of land for unlimited periods and for indefinite purposes is an unsound policy, which does not find favour in Sarawak. It leads to land being locked up, sometimes for a long period, and to placing ultimately in the hands of a foreign speculator profits which the State should reap, and to the natives it causes many hardships. In 1890, such a concession was granted to a company by the Dutch Government in the province of Sambas, quite independently of any consideration for existing and long-established rights of the natives, the real owners of the soil. This act drove many families over the borders into Sarawak, when rudely awakened to the fact that except by the permission of the employees of a company, only to be obtained by payment, they could not farm, neither could they fish or hunt, nor could they obtain the many necessities of life with which the jungle supplies them.

In his report upon Borneo for 1899, Mr. Consul Keyser writes: —

I should here like to dispel, once and for all, the idea so often heard suggested that the Ruler of Sarawak is averse to progress and the introduction of European capital. That the Rajah is anxious to discourage that undesirable class of adventurer, who descends upon undeveloped countries to fill his own purse regardless of the result, it is true. The fate of the adjacent country of Bruni, whose ruin and decay are not entirely disconnected with the unfulfilled promises and specious tales of selfish speculators, is in itself ample justification, if one were needed, for this attitude.

At the same time, no bona fide investor need fear to visit Sarawak if he is prepared to deal fairly with the natives and conform to the usages of the country. Such a man would be sure of welcome, and he himself equally certain of success.

Land is usually granted at a small rental in large or small areas, in accordance with the capital and the objects of the grantee. The proportion of the land which is to be brought under cultivation in successive years is agreed upon. Any portion of the land that the grantee may have failed to bring under cultivation within the stipulated time, or, having cultivated, has abandoned it, reverts to the State; though in the former case circumstances occasionally arise which justify some latitude to the planter. But all land brought under cultivation becomes the absolute property of a planter or his assigns, and remains so, as long as it is maintained under cultivation. Abandonment of a plantation is abandonment of the land, and it then reverts to the State; and the State thus remains the real owner of the land, though not of the plantation on it. This system is obviously of advantage to the planter. He obtains his land, which he may select where he chooses, for next to nothing, and he runs no risk of losing capital sunk in the purchase of what might prove to be an unprofitable property, and therefore one that is unsaleable. And it secures to the State a sufficient guarantee that the land will be cultivated and kept under proper cultivation. Practically the whole of the Chinese pepper and gambir planters hold their land under these terms, and they are as secure in the possession of their gardens, and the right to alienate them, as if they had bought the land. Land is sold only for special purposes, such as for buildings and gardens in a town or its suburbs.

Jungle produce, in spite of seemingly natural predictions that it must soon be worked out, which have been yearly repeated for many years past, figures yet as a very important item in the export trade, and its collection not only remains a considerable industry, but is apparently still a growing one. The exports have risen in value from $267,480 in 1877 to $1,626,427 in 1907, which is just double that of ten years previously. The products are, in the order of their value, gutta, india-rubber, cutch, rattans, timber and barks, edible birds'-nests, camphor, and beeswax.

The supposed mineral wealth of Sarawak first brought it into notice. It was known to produce gold and diamonds, though so did other Bornean States, but in addition antimony ore was brought to the Singapore market in native prahus from Sarawak, and that was not a production of any other part of Borneo. It excited the interest of Europeans as well as the cupidity of the Bruni Rajahs, but to the former, Sarawak was not a safe place with which to trade, and the latter soon drove its people into rebellion by forced labour at the antimony mines, and the supply then ceased. After the accession of the late Rajah this natural product was nationalised and became the main source of revenue, but subsequently, with all other minerals, excepting gold, it was leased to the Borneo Company. Since the days of large production in Sarawak, antimony has been worked in many other countries, and this has sent the value down, so that it is only very occasionally that the price of antimony in consuming markets will admit of any export of the metal. The large deposits that previously existed have apparently been exhausted, but fresh rich deposits may still be found, though, as with cinnabar, which was once largely worked by the Company at one place, the discovery of these isolated pockets is greatly a matter of chance. Antimony has been found in many other parts of the State, though not yet in paying quantities, and cinnabar has been found here and there on the gravel shallows of rivers, an indication of the existence, though not a sufficient one to point to the position of other lodes.

It was entirely owing to the first Rajah that the Chinese had been able to settle on the gold-fields in Upper Sarawak and to establish a large and profitable mining industry; and it was entirely owing to their own supreme folly and ingratitude that that industry was destroyed. It was revived again after a time, but never to the extent of what it had been. As the visible outcrops of gold gave out, the Chinese turned their attention to the more profitable occupation of pepper-planting, and, ten years ago, the mining district of Upper Sarawak had been changed into an agricultural one – gold-mining had almost ceased, the cinnabar mines at Tegora had long been worked out, and but little antimony was mined, whilst pepper gardens had sprung up everywhere.

The Borneo Company had from time to time spent considerable sums on experimental work on the gold deposits, but, owing to the character of the ore, no method of working was found practicable on a mercantile scale until the discovery of the cyanide process. But even treatment by cyanide in any way then used was not found successful with Sarawak ore, and the method ultimately adopted was formulated by the Company's engineers themselves. The result has been considerable success, and it is gratifying that after so many years of steady work through many difficulties and disappointments, the Company have been able to place on a prosperous footing an industry which has brought them good fortune, and which is proving to be of so great advantage to the country.

Sarawak possesses extensive coal-fields, and anthracite and steam and cannel-coal have been found throughout the country; but so far coal has been mined only at Semunjan in the Sadong river.360 This colliery has been worked for many years by the Government. The coal is of good steaming quality, leaving little ash, and there is plenty of it. Like the Brooketon Mine, this mine would pay if a market could be found for the coal. The average yearly output is now about 20,000 tons, a little more than sufficient to supply local steamers. At Selantik, up the Lingga river, very extensive coal seams have been proved; but to work these a large outlay would have to be incurred in the construction of a long railway over the swampy land lying between the Selantik hill and the nearest place in the river where steamers could load.

Diamonds are found in the upper reaches of the Sarawak river, and these are brilliant and of good water; the largest known to have been found is seventy-two carats, and was named "The Star of Sarawak." Diamonds have never been sought for in a systematic manner.

Iron ore abounds; and, as has already been noticed, it is smelted by the Kayans and Kenyahs for the manufacture of weapons and tools.

Sarawak has no mechanical industries of importance or capable of much development. Many Melanaus are able carpenters, boatbuilders, and blacksmiths. Amongst Malays are to be found some good shipbuilders and coppersmiths, and a few fairly skilful as silver and goldsmiths, but almost all the skilled labour is in the hands of the Chinese. In such domestic arts as weaving cotton and silk cloths, and plaiting mats, baskets, and hats, the native women are expert, and produce very excellent work.

CHAPTER XVII

EDUCATION – RELIGION – MISSIONS

Many changes of opinion must take place upon the subject of the education of natives before it is exhausted and the best way of teaching found, and such changes of opinion and the improvements in methods which follow in their train can only be the result of experience, or of conclusions drawn from successful or unsuccessful experiments.

So the Rajah wrote thirty years ago, but hitherto experience has taught little that gives any encouragement to the expectation that the present condition of the natives will be improved by any form of education based upon accepted ideals. Though the difficulty lies perhaps not so much in knowing what or how to teach the natives, but in getting them to come to be taught; especially is this the case with the dominant Sea-Dayak race, a fact which should not be lost sight of in considering how missionary efforts in this direction have met with such small success.

If he would learn, a Sea-Dayak could be taught almost anything; but what should we teach him? A common school board education is of no value to him. He may learn to read and write, and gain a little rudimentary knowledge utterly useless to him after leaving school, and therefore soon to be forgotten. If he is placed in one of the larger schools in Kuching he will there receive impressions and imbibe ideas which may render a return to his old surroundings distasteful to him, and unfit him for the ordinary life and occupations of his people. He will be left with one opportunity of gaining a living – he may become a clerk, though the demand for clerks is limited; but if he is successful in obtaining a clerkship he will be beset with temptations which he will be unable to resist, and which will soon prove his ruin; and unfortunately this has been the rule and not the exception. There are some who advocate technical education, and who rightly point out that the Sea-Dayak would make an excellent artisan, though the same argument applies equally against the utility of such a training. He may become a clever carpenter or smith, but there would be few opportunities for him to benefit himself by his skill, for he could never compete with the Chinese artisan, into whose hands all the skilled labour has fallen.

But if elementary and technical education were to meet with all the success one could desire, that success would needs be exceedingly limited, for, though some good would be done, only a few could be benefited. A broader view must be taken, a view that has regard not to the improvement of a few only, but of the people generally, and how this can best be done is a question that has brought forth many and various opinions, all more or less impracticable.

The Sea-Dayak has all he wants. He is well off, contented, and happy. He is a sober man, and indulges in but few luxuries. He is hard-working and he is honest, but he lacks strength of mind, and is easily led astray. Therefore, the longer he is kept from the influences of civilisation the better it will be for him, for the good cannot be introduced without the bad. Perhaps the problem of his future will work out better by a natural process. When his present sources of supply fail him and necessity forces him into other grooves, then, and not before, will he take up other industries, which his natural adaptability will soon enable him to learn.

To learn how to read and write and a little simple arithmetic is as far on the path of education as the average Malay boy can reach; and perhaps it is far enough. There are two Government Schools in Kuching for Malays, which are fairly well attended, though attendance is not compulsory. For those who may desire an education of a higher class than can be obtained in these schools, those of the S.P.G. and the R.C. Missions are always open; and Malays, though Muhammadans, do not hesitate to attend these schools, and even to be taught by the priests, for they know that no attempt will be made to proselytise them. They are encouraged to attend for their own good; they would be kept away if there was the faintest suspicion that it was for the sake of converting them. In Kuching, the Government has a third and larger school, the High School, entirely secular in character, which is open to boys of all races, who are taught by Chinese, Malay, and Indian schoolmasters, and this school is well attended.

The large S.P.G. Boys' School is under the management of an English headmaster, and the boys are well educated. The pupils are chiefly local Chinese, and there are a few natives from the out-station missions. Old boys from this school are to be met with throughout the Malay Peninsula as well as in Sarawak, maintaining in positions of trust the credit their school has so justly gained. The S.P.G. Mission has also a Girls' School, conducted by two English Sisters, and here good work is also done.

Perhaps the largest school in Kuching is that belonging to the R.C. Mission, which is very ably conducted by the priests. As in the S.P.G. School, the pupils are chiefly Chinese boys. Attached to the Convent is a Girls' School under the control of the Mother Superior and four Sisters.

In the provinces, the S.P.G. Mission has schools at five different places, but only two are now under the control of priests: the R.C. Mission has the same number of Boys' Schools, all under the control of priests, besides three convents where girls are taught. The Methodist Episcopal Mission has a school at Sibu. All these schools receive State aid. Chinese have their own little schools scattered about, for which they receive small grants, and in Upper Sarawak there are two Government Chinese Schools. Efforts to start schools amongst the provincial Malays have not met with success; they have their own little village schools conducted by hajis, in which the teaching of the Koran is the main curriculum.

Writing in 1866, the present Rajah says: —

Twenty years ago, the Sarawak population had little religion of any sort, and the first step towards bringing it to notice was when the English mission was established. The Christian Church gave rise to a Muhammadan mosque. Subsequent years of prosperity have enabled the Malays to receive instruction from the Mecca School. Those who are too old, or too much involved in the business of the country to go on the haj, send annual sums to the religious authorities there; but at the present time I feel sure there is no fanaticism among the inhabitants, and, excepting some doubtful points instilled into them in their education at Mecca, their religion is wholesome and happy. To the building of the mosque very few would come forward to subscribe.361

Forty years ago the pilgrimage to Mecca was a costly and a hazardous venture. The sufferings that pilgrims for months had to undergo on ill-found, overcrowded, and insanitary sailing ships, and the dangers to which they were exposed on the overland journey from Jedah to Mecca and back, were such that only fervent Muhammadans would face, and few Malays are such. Not many had the means to undertake a journey which would take the best part of a year to perform, as well as to satisfy the insatiable extortions to which they were subjected from the moment they set their feet in Arabia. Now, the welfare of the Muhammadan pilgrim is so well safeguarded by Christian ordinances, that his voyage to Jedah and back to Singapore presents to him but a pleasurable and interesting trip, on which his wife and daughters may accompany him with safety and moderate comfort. Steamers have taken the place of sailing ships, and competition has made the fares cheap. At Jedah the Malay pilgrim is under the protection of his Consul, and, beyond, the influence of a Great Power will protect him at least as far as his life and liberty are concerned, but he will suffer the common lot of all pilgrims, and be subjected to exactions of every kind, returning to Jedah with empty pockets.

Though, owing to the facility with which the pilgrimage can now be made, hundreds yearly go to Mecca and are brought into close contact with the bigotry of western Muhammadans, yet the Malay remains as he was, with an almost total absence of religious fervour. A sure sign of indifference to their religion in the majority of Malays and Melanaus is found in the mean, dilapidated buildings which are dignified by the name of mosques, to be seen in most of the towns and villages along the coast. Kuching practically owes its fine mosque to the benevolence of one man, the late Datu Bandar. There are some devout Muhammadans amongst the Malays, though not many, but there are no bigots. Some content themselves with a loose adherence to outward observances; many do not even do this, and not many attend the mosques for worship, but, however, all would be united in bitter opposition to any intermeddling with their religion.

The remnants of a former paganism still cling to the Malay, who is certainly more superstitious than he is religious. He still strongly believes in spirits, witchcraft, and magic – a belief his religion condemns; he will practise sorcery, and will use spells and charms to propitiate, or to ward off the evil influence of spirits – practices which his religion forbids.362

Toleration and a deficiency of zeal have made the Malays indifferent propagators of their faith amongst the pagan tribes around them; and the field has been left open to Christian missionaries, whose work of conversion they look upon with unconcern, so long as no attempt is made to convert a Muhammadan, and to do that is not allowed by the law of Sarawak. Their feeling towards the Christian religion is one of respect. They admit Christians readily to their mosques, and will attend church on the occasion of a marriage or a funeral in which they may be interested, and they will converse freely with Christians upon religious subjects, without assuming or pretending to any superiority in their own religion.

Mischievous and clever Arab impostors, usually good-looking men with a dignified bearing, meet with short shrift in Sarawak, and such holy men are very promptly moved on. The heads of the Muhammadan religion will have none of them. Their ostensible object is to teach, but their sole one is to make what they can by trading upon the superstition of the simple-minded. In these men the Dutch see fanatical emissaries sent from Mecca to preach a jihad or holy war, and have more than once warned the Government that such men had gone to Sarawak for this purpose. They may be right, but these pseudo Sherifs and Sayids363 have never attempted to do so in Sarawak, it would be a waste of their time, and be the ruin of their business.

The Sea-Dayaks, as well as the Land-Dayaks, and those tribes inhabiting the interior are alike pagans, and possess but a dim and vague belief in certain mythical beings who, between them, made man and gave him life. These gods are styled Batara or Patara and Jewata – Sanskrit names introduced by the Hindus.364 With them mythical legends, which vary greatly, take the place of religion. They have no priests, no temples, and no worship. They believe in spirits with controlling power over the air, the earth, and the water, and they place implicit reliance on omens as given by birds, animals, and reptiles, and in dreams, through which the spirits convey warnings or encouragement in respect to the affairs they may be engaged upon, or contemplate undertaking. They have a belief in a future life, which will differ in little respect from their life on this earth. These people are not idolaters; their religion is animistic.

The project of the establishment of a Church of England Mission in Sarawak was started by the late Rajah in 1847. The Earl of Ellesmere and others interested themselves in the project, and, sufficient funds having been subscribed, the Rev. F. T. McDougall and two other missionaries were sent out, and arrived in Sarawak in June, 1848. The Church of St. Thomas, now the Diocesan Church, was completed and consecrated by the Bishop of Calcutta in 1851. Two years later the Mission was transferred to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; and, in 1855, to complete the organisation of the Church in Borneo, Mr. McDougall was consecrated Bishop of Labuan and Sarawak. He resigned in 1867, and died in 1886. Mr. Chambers, who had for many years been a missionary in Sarawak, succeeded him, and on his resignation365 the Venerable G. F. Hose, Archdeacon of Singapore, was consecrated Bishop in 1881, and the full designation of the diocese then became Singapore, Labuan, and Sarawak, by the inclusion of the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States.

The headquarters of the Mission is at Kuching, where the Bishop and the Archdeacon reside, the latter being also the Vicar of Kuching. The Mission Stations are at Lundu, Kuap, Banting, Sabu in the Undup, and Sebetan in the Kalaka, and at these places there are churches and schools. Hitherto all these stations, which were established many years ago, have been under the care of resident clergymen, but at present there are four vacancies. Attached to these principal Stations, and under the supervision of the missionary in charge, are many scattered chapels with native catechists and teachers.