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The Puzzle of Christianity
Peter Vardy
An excellent overview of Christianity, suitable for students (and teachers!) embarking on the new GCSE and ‘A’-Level Religious Studies specifications.Written in the same clear and engaging style as the bestselling Puzzle of Ethics and Puzzle of God, this book covers key content common to all the new specifications – including:• Jesus: His incarnation, life, ethical teaching, crucifixion and resurrection, saving importance for Christians and relationship with God;• The development of Christianity through from the Early Church to contemporary Global Christianity;• The similarities and differences between different types of Christianity in terms of beliefs, teachings and practices;• The use and authority of the Bible and other sources of authority within the Churches as well as how the Bible shapes Christian Ethics;• Christian responses to science, feminism, secularism, philosophy and the new atheism as well as crises in social justice.Most importantly, Vardy places these themes in context and helps students to understand and appreciate Christianity, the largest religious tradition in the UK and worldwide. Through this latest book in Vardy’s bestselling series, students will enjoy their studies and see the relevance of taking the subject further.
Copyright (#u7b5c17d8-be11-5cfc-b56e-68942f502aa5)
William Collins
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This eBook edition published by William Collins in 2016
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Text © Peter Vardy, 2016
Photographs © individual copyright holders
Peter Vardy asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work.
Cover photograph: Ascent of the Blessed by Hieronymus Bosch (c.1490). Photo by Marco Secchi/Corbis via Getty images
Scripture quotations taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version (Anglicised edition) Copyright © 1979, 1984, 2011 by Biblica (formerly International Bible Society). Used by permission of Hodder & Stoughton Publishers, an Hachette UK company. All rights reserved. ‘NIV’ is a registered trademark of Biblica (formerly International Bible Society). UK trademark number 1448790.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this eBook on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins Publishers.
Source ISBN: 9780008204242
Ebook Edition © September 2016 ISBN: 9780008204259
Version: 2016-09-05
Dedication (#u7b5c17d8-be11-5cfc-b56e-68942f502aa5)
To Christine Smith
Who, first at HarperCollins and then at SCM,
has published most of my books and to whom
I owe a great deal. With thanks.
Peter Vardy
Easter 2016
Contents
Cover (#udfba3b98-677c-5ab9-91dc-d6aaa4fbf838)
Title Page (#ufc4503a0-8dec-52d6-a288-7f34ca62c662)
Copyright
Dedication
1. United and Divided (#u70b57646-6237-5e5a-aa4a-27a0c59f5fe1)
2. From the Beginning of the Universe (#uf4c3c3f0-19b3-54df-94e6-7af4e0cd1498)
3. The Life of Jesus (#udd7804c7-9bc1-575b-bab0-10d39995cb4c)
4. The Message of Jesus (#uf95836a8-501e-5af7-b080-a3109740584e)
5. The Resurrection and the Initial Spread of Christianity (#u178cffd5-a92d-5f4f-9f7b-bdecb9b2ad14)
6. The Development of the Early Church (#litres_trial_promo)
7. Unity, Growth, Division and Discord (#litres_trial_promo)
8. Reformation and Counter-Reformation (#litres_trial_promo)
9. The Rise of the Protestant Churches (#litres_trial_promo)
10. The Bible (#litres_trial_promo)
11. The Philosophy of Religion (#litres_trial_promo)
12. Christian Ethics (#litres_trial_promo)
13. Spirituality and Mysticism (#litres_trial_promo)
14. Outward Expressions of Inner Realities (#litres_trial_promo)
15. Christianity Today (#litres_trial_promo)
16. Conclusion (#litres_trial_promo)
Postscript (#litres_trial_promo)
List of Illustrations (#litres_trial_promo)
Index (#litres_trial_promo)
About the Book
About the Author
About the Publisher
ONE (#ulink_7bfaa551-ae83-5f8e-9b65-e1d58c33e26d)
United and Divided (#ulink_7bfaa551-ae83-5f8e-9b65-e1d58c33e26d)
Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus the Christ, is at the centre of Christianity. This, at least, is clear but beyond this, defining the essence of Christianity is full of difficulties. It is like trying to capture a rainbow or the light from the sparkling drops of a waterfall as they reflect the sun. Christianity has many facets and many forms. It is the largest religion in the world with nearly 2 billion adherents and these are found in every country in the globe. Christians are united and also divided. They are united around the centrality of the person of Jesus, His unique status and the extraordinary message He came to convey, but divided in many ways on the nature of the message, on doctrine, beliefs, ethics, forms of worship and even the status of the New Testament.
It would be easy to focus on the lack of unity in Christianity – and this lack of unity certainly exists. Major Christian churches are often at loggerheads and the disagreement between Christian groups can be profound and deep. Some Protestants do not regard Catholics as Christian at all. The teaching authority of the Catholic Church, the Magisterium, has historically been hostile to Protestantism and used to deny salvation to those who were outside their church; indeed, they ruled that there was only one Church: their own. Pentecostal churches, particularly in the United States and Africa, owe much to the charisma of individual church leaders and there is limited unity beyond the centrality of the Bible and the person of Jesus. Orthodox Christians have traditionally been suspicious of Western Christianity and have sought to remain faithful to the tradition of the early Church, whilst liberal Christians in the West have often diluted traditional Christian beliefs to such an extent that not much remains.
The history of Christianity has been full of disagreements, with so-called ‘heretical’ groups being persecuted because of their deviance from what was accepted as orthodoxy. There was no unity in the early centuries of Christianity, with a considerable range of different interpretations and beliefs. Forging unity and then seeking to maintain this has also been a challenge and it has particularly occupied the main Christian churches. There has been violence, torture and persecution as well as fierce attacks over what may seem to be small points of doctrine. It would be easy to reject the whole of Christianity on these grounds and many critics have done so. And yet, beneath the tensions and the sometimes violent disagreements, like the De profundis or the deep tone of a bass bell, there is something profound, significant and important happening – something of enormous contemporary relevance and something on which hundreds of millions of people down the centuries have been willing to stake their lives. Christianity has been responsible for some of the greatest art and the greatest acts of heroism and altruism, as well as compassion, nobility and virtue – as well as, it must be admitted, terrible persecution and suffering. Christian thinkers have generated some of the most profound philosophy as well as science and business practice. European culture has been founded on Christianity and this has been exported around the globe. Many of the internationally accepted values endorsed by the United Nations have Christian origins.
To understand Jesus of Nazareth it is important to understand the culture in which He lived. The Roman Empire 2,000 years ago covered most of central and southern Europe as well as North Africa. Its armies were dominant and its civilian administration, although reasonably fair, was harsh and unyielding, as well as viciously cruel to those who dissented. Being a Roman citizen carried great privileges and most of the inhabitants of the territories that Rome conquered longed to share in the wealth, power and prosperity of the Empire. Slaves were common and slavery was accepted. Slaves often came from the nations conquered by Rome in battle but they could rise to positions of influence. Most, however, were desperately poor and appallingly treated. Society was clearly hierarchical with the great families of Rome at the top. Money was of central importance, as in most societies, and a certain amount of social mobility was possible, but always within fairly narrow limits. Any resistance to the Imperial power of Rome was suppressed viciously and effectively. The Roman Senate and the Emperor had ultimate power, but this was delegated to administrators and officials in the various territories of the Empire. However, these officials all recognised that they were fully accountable to Rome for keeping order, for sending taxes back to Rome and also for ensuring that Roman values and Roman religion were maintained. Rome had its own pantheon of gods, and emperors were sometimes deified. The Jews held a special position, as their religion was tolerated. Rome occupied Palestine and what had been, in the remote past, independent Jewish territory. Unlike many subservient peoples, the Jews were proud and continually dreamed of regaining their freedom. Their lands had been frequently conquered in the past but, eventually, they had always regained their independence, and at the time of Jesus there were many who dreamed that this independence would come again.
Jesus was a Jew and this culture was second nature to Him. Jews were the first monotheists – the first to worship a single God. Jews were proud of their identity. The Roman authorities left them free to practise their religion, provided they obeyed the laws of Rome and paid the very considerable taxes that were demanded of them. The Temple in Jerusalem had recently been rebuilt but Rome asserted its domination by occupying one of the corner towers. Rome had little time for Jewish religion and practices but they were tolerated, not out of sympathy but because it was the easiest way of keeping a potentially troublesome people quiet. There was a vassal king, Herod, who was allowed a limited degree of autonomy, and the Jewish priests were also allowed a certain amount of freedom to manage religious affairs.
In understanding any period in history the cultural context is important and this is undoubtedly the case when seeking to understand Jesus of Nazareth. In the case of Jesus, however, His national background was even more important than that of almost any other historical figure. To say that He was a Jew does not begin to capture what this meant; the depth of culture, theology, civilisation, expectations, disappointments, resentments and hope that lay behind this single word was massive. Jews, more than almost any other nation, are a people with a long history. They saw history as the arena in which their God, the God of the whole creation, cared for and looked after them in spite of great suffering. Jews saw themselves – and still do – as a people chosen by God, the chosen people whom God would always protect and, in the last analysis, preserve. This hope and expectation has always been borne out in spite of the most terrible persecution and oppression as well as systematic attempts at genocide. The other nations and sects of the ancient Middle East have all disappeared; the Moabites and Assyrians, the Philistines and the Babylonians, the Romans and Greeks have all been swept away, to be replaced by nation states with changing boundaries and identities. However, Jewish identity has been preserved.
Figure 1: A Torah scroll is the holiest book in Judaism. It is hand written by a scribe in Hebrew and contains the first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures. Every synagogue has such a scroll and Jesus would have read from one like this (see Luke 4:16–20).
In order, therefore, to begin to understand the person of Jesus of Nazareth it is essential to understand something of Jewish history – or at least history as it was seen by the Jews and recorded in the Torah and the other books which Christians refer to as the Hebrew Scriptures. These Scriptures tell the story of the history of a people and their interaction with their God: of their origins, their faith, their failures, their hopes and disappointments. Modern scholars differ about the extent to which this story is historically accurate but there is no doubt that it was considered as true by Jews at the time of Jesus and, indeed, by many Jews and Christians today. In the next chapter a very brief account will be given of this history, and this is not mere background. It is not possible to understand what Christianity is until one has understood that Jesus was a Jew and He was seen as a fulfilment of the Jewish Scriptures. Jesus, Christians believe, is the highest point of God’s love for, and interaction with, the world. It is no mere coincidence that He was born as a Jew. God’s relation with the people of Israel goes back to the dawn of recorded time and, as history develops and God interacts with human beings and human affairs, it is Jesus who brings to fruition all the long history and expectation of the people of Israel.
TWO (#ulink_455e52fb-7fb8-503b-a74d-2cb6607cec46)
From the Beginning of the Universe (#ulink_455e52fb-7fb8-503b-a74d-2cb6607cec46)
Christians see the world as created by God and dependent on God. God sustains the universe in existence and, were it not for God, there would be no universe. The universe is incredibly orderly and behaves according to mathematical and physical laws. These laws are intelligible to human beings and the universe as a whole has meaning and purpose grounded in the will of God. This is one of the most important Christian beliefs and it is shared by Jews, Muslims and many others around the world. For Christians, God is loving as well as personal and wills the universe into existence as a free act of love for the whole of creation.
We now know that the universe began to exist from a singularity – the infinitely small, dense matter which suddenly expanded in the ‘Big Bang’ and from which the present state of the universe can be traced. The dating of the universe is generally agreed by scientists to be about 13.7 billion years ago and scientists also agree that the specific conditions which enabled the ‘Big Bang’ to occur had to be unbelievably precise for a universe to form at all. There are various possible ways of seeking to explain the incredible improbability of the singularity. One explanation is to say that ‘it just happened’. Extraordinary and improbable things do happen and the universe is just one of those improbable things. Another is to say that there are a near-infinite number of possible universes (in other words, a multiverse) and we just happen to be in the universe that had the right conditions for stars, planets and life to form. Christians reject both of these and see the universe as a result of the purposeful intention of a loving creator God.
This idea has its roots in the earliest stories in the Hebrew Scriptures where God’s creative Word is held to have uttered the universe into existence. God is also shown as responsible for the sea and dry land, for all animals, birds and fish and, above all, for the creation of men and women. Men and women are the pinnacle, the crown of creation, and God created a perfect world for them and was pleased with all that God had created. The story of the Jews, therefore, begins with creation. The Word of God is central to the creation story and indeed to the whole of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is the Word of God that creates the heavens and earth, and it is the Word of God that later comes to the great Hebrew prophets. The God of the Hebrews is beyond all human categories. The whole of the universe cannot contain God, and yet God is radically present among God’s chosen people. The Word of God is therefore active and creative. It is a Word for guidance, exhortation and sometimes condemnation. The Word has power and can not only create from nothing but also intervene in and through human affairs.
There are two different creation stories written, biblical scholars generally agree, about 400 years apart and, of course, long after the events that they seek to describe. They recount, in different ways, the universe coming into being and the presence of human beings in the world.
However, these stories continue with the immediate disobedience of the two figures recorded as placed in the perfect world (the Garden of Eden) which God created – Adam and Eve. This disobedience of these two primal figures led to disruption of the world with the entrance of pain, death, evil and suffering. The Hebrew Scriptures are in no doubt about the extraordinary position that human beings occupy in the whole created universe. They are the apex of creation and are essentially different from everything else in the created order because they have rationality and also free will.
Obedience to the Word of God is a central theme in the Hebrew Scriptures and from the creation of the world the Scriptures record the tendency of humans to be self-centred and disobedient. This disobedience is not a rejection of an autocratic power figure; God creates human beings and wants what is best for them, what will lead to human fulfilment.
Figure 1: Michelangelo’s painting in the Sistine Chapel in Rome shows, on the left, Eve taking the fruit from the serpent. Notice that the body of the serpent changes into the form of a woman. On the right are Adam and Eve being banished from the Garden of Eden by an angel with a sword (Genesis 3:23–24).
The story of Adam and Eve begins the Hebrew Scriptures and most Western Christians consider that it represents a myth – but myth can convey truth. The truth resides in the claim that God created the universe and all that is in it, and that human beings are in a special position, having free will. They constantly choose to disobey and yet God always forgives and provides a new start. A peaceful and wonderful world is portrayed and human beings were placed in it to enjoy it and to enjoy God’s presence. However, for modern Christians, the issues are more complex. Most Christians accept Darwin’s theory of natural selection and, whilst maintaining that God created and sustains the universe, nevertheless see human beings as evolving from lower animals. Generally, Christians do not see a tension between their faith and science, although there are some who still hold to a literal interpretation of the text and who therefore reject evolution – but these are a minority.
Following the exclusion of Adam and Eve from Eden, God also showed God’s care for them by cherishing them and being with them in spite of their difficulties. This is another theme found throughout both Judaism and Christianity – that God will never forsake God’s people and will be with them even though this presence may not be obvious. The story of Adam and Eve and the population of the earth continues through the story of Noah, when God is recorded as being so angry with human beings because of their selfishness and disobedience that the whole of creation was nearly destroyed but Noah and his family and the entire created order were preserved as a result of the righteousness of Noah and the mercy of God. Some Jewish rabbis have seen parallels with the subsequent righteousness of the Jews preserving the whole of creation from destruction.
Arguably, the single most important figure in the Jewish Scriptures is Abraham. He was a descendant of Noah and lived in the city of Ur in what is now Iraq. He worshipped a single God and this was unusual and unpopular in the world of his time. The legacy of Abraham was enormous. He is revered as the father not only of the Jewish nation but of all Jews; he is seen by Muslims as the first to submit to Allah and, therefore, the first Muslim; and by Christians as the ‘father of faith’, as his whole life is centred on obedience to, and worship of, God. The story of Abraham is at the core of the faith of any Jew and Jesus would have been no exception. The whole of Abraham’s life was based on trust in God and in the promises of God, even when these promises seemed absurd. He trusted God when God promised him a son even though his wife, Sarah, was past the menopause. He trusted God in every aspect of his life, even to the extent of being willing to place obedience to God before his duty to his son and family. It was to Abraham and his descendants that God is held to have made a covenant or promise that the land of Israel in Palestine would belong to them, and Jews still look to this promise as a justification for a Jewish homeland. Abraham was the first to show clearly the single most important requirement of the God of the people of Israel: that God demanded absolute loyalty. God had to be at the centre of the whole of the life of every devout Jew. Everything else was to be put in second place. It was failure to keep this command that Jews saw as the chief reason for the troubles that were to befall them in their history.
God entered into a covenant, effectively a binding promise, between God on one side and Abraham and his descendants on the other. Provided the children of Abraham maintained loyalty to God, then God would protect them. God would never abandon them totally, even though at times God might seem far away.
Abraham had two children: one by Sarah’s slave Hagar (with whom Abraham slept at the request of Sarah when she was convinced that she was barren and could not have children) and the other by Sarah herself. The second child was named Isaac (which means ‘laughter’) and it was from Isaac and one of his two sons, Jacob, that all the tribes of Israel were seen as descended. Blaise Pascal referred to the ‘God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholars’. He was emphasising the personal nature of God and the relationship that God is recorded as having with these three great ancestors of the Jewish nation and which he considered continued in the Christian tradition. It is important to recognise that the people of Israel and modern Jews see themselves as descended from Abraham through Isaac and then Jacob; there is a real sense in which the people of Israel were a great extended family. Jews, therefore, were concerned with their lineal descendants – parents mattered. Jews tended to marry Jews and Jewish identity was maintained by dietary laws and by various practices, including the removal of the foreskin from the penis of baby boys (circumcision). Jewish identity has always been a key feature in maintaining the existence of the people of Israel, and these outward signs were seen as acknowledgement of this dependence.
The Hebrew Scriptures record the story of the people of Israel who were, at this early stage, merely a group of families descended from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. The extended family prospered but, eventually, they faced starvation and famine in Palestine where the rains are often uncertain. After years of drought, they were forced to flee to the land of Egypt which, because of the river Nile, had always been an area of prosperity; the adventures and events which gave rise to this Exodus are related in detail. God’s hand is always seen as working through history; at the time, isolated and seemingly unrelated events occur but behind these events is God’s guiding hand. Christians sometimes refer to ‘salvation history’: God acting through history to bring God’s purposes about. An anonymous poem called ‘The Loom of Time’ expresses this well:
Man’s life is laid in the loom of time
To a pattern he does not see,
While the weavers work and the shuttles fly
Till the dawn of eternity.
Some shuttles are filled with silver threads
And some with threads of gold,
While often but the darker hues
Are all that they may hold.
But the weaver watches with a skilful eye
Each shuttle fly to and fro,
And sees the pattern so deftly wrought
As the loom moves sure and slow.
God surely planned the pattern:
Each thread, the dark and fair,
Is chosen by His master skill
And placed in the web with care.
He only knows its beauty,
And guides the shuttles which hold
The threads so unattractive,
As well as the threads of gold.
Not till each loom is silent,
