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The history of Russian chest craft (19th – early 20th centuries). Collection of scientific articles
Gleb Pudov
This book contains 15 scientific articles dealing with various problems of the history of chest production in Russia (19th – early 20 century): international relations, labeling issues, the images of chests in paintings, etc. The Russian chest is analyzed by a broad historical background.
The history of Russian chest craft (19th – early 20th centuries)
Collection of scientific articles
Gleb Pudov
Reviewer Alexej Chevardin
Reviewer Irina Kolobkova
Editor Natalia Kovaleva
© Gleb Pudov, 2022
ISBN 978-5-0056-3717-8
Created with Ridero smart publishing system
Foreword
The chest has been known in Russia since ancient times. Even in the annals and Novgorod birch bark letters there are references to chests and caskets. Many of them are admirable works of art. By the 19th century, Russian chest craft had turned into a powerful industry, in which hundreds of craftsmen were employed.
The history of chest production has been little studied until recently. There were only a few scientific articles and small notes in local newspapers. However, the situation has recently changed: monographs have been published in the major centers of chest production in Russia, as well as many scientific articles, the conclusions of which are based on previously unknown archival information. These works deal with many aspects of the chest production: the history of specific workshops, branding features, the specifics of certain types of chests and caskets, biographies of people who explored the craft in the 19th century, etc. But all of them were published in Russian and are known only to a narrow circle of local specialists. For foreign researchers, the history of Russian chest production remains terra incognita. Until now, information about it has hardly gone beyond the geographical borders of Russia.
This edition is the first attempt to «cut a window to Europe». As soon as the book is available in foreign libraries, it will enable Western scholars to get acquainted with the history of the Russian chest.
Gleb Pudov summarized the experience of many years of research on chest production in Russia in his monograph. The sections of the book present and analyze the activities of various Russian centers of the production of chests in the 19th – early 20th centuries (Russian North, Urals, Murom district, Vyatka province, local centers of craft). The illustrative material makes the author’s assertions convincing.
The main conclusions of the study are substantiated by extensive historiography and a large set of sources (archival data, museum specimens and field surveys of preserved objects).
After being acquainted with this book a foreign reader will get an idea about the Russian chest industry. It will become apparent that the products of each center had differences. They were evident in the appearance of chests and caskets. In his monograph Gleb Pudov emphasizes that the masters were the bearers of the traditions that had developed in a particular region. Therefore, as a rule, the artistic design of their products coincided with the products of other handicraftsmen: manufacturers of painted trays, wooden utensils, etc. The chest makers used materials and techniques that were widespread in their region, guided by the preferences of representatives of specific social strata.
So, in the eyes of the European reader, the Russian chest can appear not only as a local artistic phenomenon, but also as part of the world arts and crafts.
Natalia M. Shabalina, Doctor of Arts, Professor, South Ural State Humanitarian-Pedagogical University (Chelyabinsk, Russia); e-mail: nat.shabalina@mail.ru
From the author
The Russian chest is a wonderful artistic phenomenon. However, it is not well studied. There are many lacunae related to one or another particular chest production.
The proposed book consists of 15 scientific articles devoted to different aspects of the chest craft. What is the peculiarity of this collection? Firstly, not all of the author’s works on the history of the production of chests were included in it, but only those characterizing any aspects of it. Secondly, the articles are arranged not according to the time of writing, but according to the chronology of the chest production in Russia and the importance of one or another center for the general history of the craft. Thirdly, it took into account where the paper was published. Preference was given to less accessible to the reader works (for example, from collections of regional museums or universities). All articles have been corrected and supplemented in accordance with the current level of knowledge of Russian chest production, some are published in abbreviations.
It is unlikely that the author managed to avoid repetitions. There is a certain range of sources on the history of the chest craft of one or another region today. Addressing them inevitably leads to repetitions of certain facts, surnames, statistical information, etc. The author expresses the hope that the reader will duly understand it.
The history of the Russian chest has not been written yet. This publication is, in a sense, a preparatory work for a large generalizing book on the history of chest production in Russia. It only outlines the main points and sets the main accents. Perhaps, this will serve as a support for future researchers.
I’m grateful to Anna Kuznetskaya, a teacher and a linguist, for the assistance.
Russian-scandinavian artistic relations in chest production
The problem of interaction of craft traditions in the production of chests[1 - The word «chest» in this article means not only the specific type of products of the chests master, but also the whole range of their products: usually consisting of two compartments: upper and lower skrynyas (the difference between a skrynya and a casket is that it has shelves inside), chests, podgolovnik, boxes, trunks, etc. A chest is characterized by some vagueness of terminology. In addition, geographical restrictions are expedient: the article deals mainly with products from the North-West and the Center of Russia. Chest products in the South and East of the country had slightly different forms and principles of decoration. And, finally, this work analyzes items made only by Russian craftsmen (by origin).]is of great importance when examining their artistic style. However, little attention has been paid to it until now. In the scientific literature, from time to time, there are only indications of the generality of the forms of Russian and foreign chest products[2 - Гончарова Н. Н. Влияние православной культуры на содержание сюжетной росписи сундуков XVII—XVIII вв. // Народное искусство: русская традиционная культура и православие, XVIII—XXI вв.: традиции и современность. – М.: Союз Дизайн, 2013, С. 485; Пудов Г. А. Уральские сундуки XVIII—XX веков: история, мастера, произведения. – СПб.: Первый класс, 2016, С. 70; Пудов Г. А. О сундуках и шкатулках из коллекции отдела народного искусства Русского музея // Петербургские искусствоведческие тетради. Статьи по истории искусства. – Вып. 38. – СПб.: АИС, 2016, С. 138.]. As a rule, that’s as far as it, and, moreover, most often we mean Western European, not Scandinavian items.
The purpose of this article is to identify the results of the interaction of Russian and Scandinavian artistic traditions in chest production, to determine the role and significance of foreign influences on formation of Russian chest products style. The task is to analyse the artistic style, construction and materials of specific works from the collections of Russian and Scandinavian museums. While working on the topic, information from domestic and foreign special literature was used.
It should be noted that the the limitation of the length of the article does not allow considering all the issues and problems associated with this topic. It is truly inexhaustible, so the author only outlines the main points.
* * *
Russian-Scandinavian relations are among the oldest in Europe. Trade and political ties have led to interactions in the spheres of arts and architecture. In Russian-Swedish relations, cooperation in the field of metal processing and sale has acquired particular importance[3 - Бахрушин С. В. Торги новгородцев Кошкиных// Научные труды/ редкол.: А. А. Зимин и др.; вступ. ст. В.И. Шункова; АН СССР. Ин-т истории. Т. II, М.: изд-во АН СССР, 1954, С. 191; Erixon S. Gammal mässing. – Västerås: ICA förlaget AB, 1964, S. 74; Некрасов Г. А. Тысяча лет русско-шведско-финских культурных связей IX—XVIII вв. – М.: Наука, 1993, С. 41, 199; Шаскольский И. П. Русская морская торговля на Балтике в XVII в. – СПб.: Наука, 1994, С. 56—60.]. In the 1680s and 1690s, together with Russian merchants, Russian armourers, coppersmiths, and tinsmiths came to Sweden every year. The Swedes were among the masters of the Armory. They also worked at Russian ironworks production, weapons factories, glass production, and were on scientific expeditions. Diplomatic embassies played a significant role in the appearance of works of swedish applied art in Russia[4 - Лебедева И. В. Датские и шведские дары русскому государству в XVI—XVII веках // Скандинавский сборник. Вып. III. – Таллин: Ээсти раамат, 1958, С.120; Martin F.R. Schwedische königliche Geschenke an russische Zaren. 1647—1699. Silberschätze in der kaiserlichen Schatzkammer zu Moskaw. – Stockholm, 1900.]. In the 18th century, relations between countries were contradictory. On the one hand, cooperation was interrupted by military conflicts, on the other, it developed especially fruitfully during periods of peace. Swedish masters of various art specialties were hired to work in Russia. At the beginning of the 18th century in St. Petersburg, swedish craftsmen ranked second after the Germans in terms of number[5 - Янгфельд Б. От варягов до Нобеля: шведы на берегах Невы. – М.: Ломоносовъ, 2010.]. According to Armin Felkerzam, up to a hundred of them arrived in St. Petersburg only before 1780[6 - Фелькерзам А. Иностранные мастера золотого и серебряного дела // Старые годы. – 1911. – Июль – сентябрь. – С. 98.]. It is known that swedish joiners and carpenters took part in the construction of Peterhof. It should be especially noted that they were also among the artisans who taught Russian craftsmen their skill[7 - Янгфельдт Б. Шведские пути в Санкт-Петербург. – Стокгольм, Санкт-Петербург: Шведский институт, БЛИЦ, 2003, С.56, 62; Карлбек Х. Шведы и шведское в России // Шведы в Москве. Материалы российско-шведской научной конференции. Москва, 1—2 июня 2000 г. – М.: РГГУ, 2002, С.130.]. Scandinavian craftsmen played a very significant role in the history of Russian applied art in the second half of the 18th century. Swedish silversmiths can be regarded as «the guides of Western styles and Western fashions. Through them all the styles of the 18th century gradually penetrated to Russia, although with a delay of ten years»[8 - Фелькерзам А. Op.cit., С. 98.]. Not only silversmiths, but masters of other specialties were represented in the Russian capital in large numbers. There were swedish masters in other cities and villages of Russia. It is no coincidence that Vladimir Suslov in his «Travel Notes» (1888) pointed to the striking similarity between the objects of peasant life in Sweden and the Russian North. Running a little ahead, we point out that the researcher meant not only Sweden, but also Norway, and chests also appeared in his comparisons[9 - Суслов В. В. Путевые заметки о севере России и Норвегии. – СПб.: тип. А. Ф. Маркса, 1889, С. 8, 9.].
Russia has active cultural and economic ties with Norway and Denmark. From the Icelandic sagas it is known that the Norwegians made trade trips to the Russian lands, mainly to Novgorod already in the X – early XII centuries. The border between states was officially recognized in 1326. Trade relations became permanent in the 16th century, the Norwegians came to Kola, Kegor, the Pechengsky monastery, Kholmogory. In the next century Arkhangelsk became the main trade center. Russian merchants also traveled to Norway, and they were not only Murmansk residents, but also dwellers of Podvinya, Kargopol, and the villages of the White Sea. The active communication led to the existence of parallels in many areas of culture, in particular, in the construction of wooden churches, woodcarving and book illustrations. For a long time, not only cultural and trade, but also political ties have been established between the countries.
Russian-Danish relations were no less ancient. The first information about the Danes is found in the Novgorod First Chronicle of the years 1130 and 1134. Nevertheless, ties between countries originated much earlier than the XII century, as evidenced by the data of numismatics and linguistics[10 - Свердлов М. Б. Дания и Русь в XI веке // Исторические связи Скандинавии и России (IX—XX вв.). Сб. статей. – Л.: Наука, 1970, С. 82; Макаев Э. А. Руническая надпись из Новгорода // Советская археология. – 1962. – №3. – С. 309—311.]. They reached significant development in the 15th century. The first Russian-Danish treaty was signed in 1493, which was of an anti-Swedish character. Danish merchants, in comparison with merchants of other countries, received great privileges: they could trade throughout the territory of Russia, they were given two trading yards. Even the Danish government was directly involved in trade. The economic rapprochement between Russia and Denmark had a specific reason. They wanted to get rid of the mediation of the Hansa[11 - Казакова Н. А. Русско-датские торговые отношения в конце XV – начале XVI в. // Исторические связи Скандинавии и России (IX—XX вв.). Сб. статей. – Л.: Наука, 1970, С. 89, 93—96.]. The role of political partnership increased markedly in the 18th century.
So for centuries there have been strong ties between Russia and Scandinavia, including different areas of culture. The production of chest and caskets, which existed in these states for a long time, was no exception[12 - Арциховский А. В., Янин В. Л. Новгородские грамоты на бересте (из раскопок 1962 – 1976 гг.). – М., 1978, С. 35—36, 41—42, 135; Arbman H. Birka. B. I. Die Gräber. Tafeln. – Stockholm, 1943, Taf. 259; Schoultz G. von. Kistor. – Stockholm: Nordiska Museet, 1949, S. 4; Arwidsson G., Berg G. The Mästermyr find: A viking age tool chest from Gotland. – Stockholm: Vitterhets-, historie- och antikvitetsakad, 1983.].
Parallels can be traced already at the level of the etymology of words denoting certain chest products, as well as objects associated with them. For example, the Old Russian word «korsta» – «coffin», which has been preserved in some northern dialects, is close not only to the Germanic «kasten» («box»), which goes back to the Latin word «cista» («box»)[13 - Сапунов Б. В. У истоков русской мебели (XI—XIII вв.) // Труды ГЭ. Том XXIII. Из истории русской культуры. – Л.: Искусство, 1983, С.14.], but also the swedish word «kista» («chest»). The Russian word «chest» comes from the ancient Swedish «lárr» («chest», «drawer») and «lår» («box, chest»)[14 - Фасмер М. Этимологический словарь русского языка. Т. II. – М.: Прогресс, 1967, С. 460.]. According to other sources, the ancient swedish word itself could be borrowed from the Old Russian[15 - Черных П. Я. Историко-этимологический словарь современного русского языка. В 2 т. Т. I. – М.: Русский язык, 1994, С. 468.]. One way or another, the etymology of the word «chest» testifies to the existence from an early period of Russian-Swedish ties in the use of chest products, and possibly their production.
In June 2004, in Pskov, in one of the burials of the Viking Age, the remains of a wooden casket were discovered, which dates back to the 10th century[16 - Михайлов А. В., Салмин С. А. Ларец из камерного погребения 2 Старовознесенского раскопа в Пскове// Славяно-русское ювелирное дело и его истоки. Материалы Международной научной конференции, посвященной 100-летию со дня рождения Г. Ф. Корзухиной. Санкт-Петербург, 10—16 апреля 2006 г. – СПб.: Нестор-История, 2010, С. 493—496.]. On its round lid, between four triangular iron plates, there were bronze plates decorated in the Jelling style[17 - The Jelling style (900 – 980) is named after burial mounds in Jelling (Denmark). Items made in this style are distinguished by sophistication, aristocracy and richness. They are often decorated with gilding. The main features of this style are the image of the head of the beast in profile, ribbon-like, intertwining torsos and geometric patterns run along the body of the animal.]. An iron ring with a diameter of 4.5 cm is attached in the middle of the lid. The lid is bordered by a rim of nails with wide heads. The lock was placed in the wall of the casket. Its analogue were found in Birka[18 - Birka is a large economic and handicraft center on the territory of modern Sweden, situated on the shores of Lake Mälaren. It existed in the years 800 – 975.].The considered casket testifies to one of the ways of getting Scandinavian products to Russia and their existence here since ancient times. This provided an opportunity for direct interaction between Russian and Scandinavian traditions in the production of chest and caskets. Let us consider several of their types[19 - Most illustrative works of art have been selected for the article. Conclusions following from their comparison concern the entire mass of Russian and foreign items viewed by the author.].
In museums of Russia there are items, which are called trunks (“baul” in Russian). They were taken along on trips. The trunks are of different sizes. Their body is cylindrical, the lid is on top, on the sides there are small curly handles. As a rule, such items were covered with the skins of sea animals, upholstered with slotted iron strips. In front there was a curly iron plate that protected the key hole. The collection of the Department of folk art of the Russian Museum contains a similar item dating from the 18th century[20 - Inv. № М-504. See analogies: “Museum Complex named after I. Ya. Slovtsov” (Tyumen region, inv. № D-57), Smolensk State Museum Reserve (inv. №P 187), State Historical Museum (inv. №MZh 6849), Hermitage (inv. №ERM-4731). Dated to the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th century.]. Five iron strips with a cut ornamentation consisting of a row of “cucumbers”[21 - “Cucumber” – the name of a decorative figure.] are attached on its oak base, in front there is a cast hinge.
Many similar items made in Sweden and called chests («kista») can be found in museums in different cities of this country, for example, in Kalmar[22 - See also the chest from the collection of the Uppland Museum (inv. № UM 03648).]. As an example, we give a product at the inventory number KLM 21466[23 - See: https://digitalmuseum.se/021026252015/kista.]. It has a cylindrical shape and is covered with seal skin. Thin iron strips are nailed on top, wide at the edges. There is no slit ornament on them. In the middle there is a square metal plate. There is no lock. This chest has wrought iron handle on each side. The inside of the chest is upholstered with unpainted linen. Similar things were done in Denmark[24 - Item from the collection of the National Museum of Denmark, dated 1744 (see: samlinger.natmus.dk/DMR/asset/219632).].
Together with the complete similarity of the designs of Russian and Scandinavian items, there are obvious differences in decoration. The slotted ornament of Russian chests consists of ornamental figures borrowed from oriental fabrics that came to Russia in abundance in the 17th century. There is no cut ornament on swedish items (with the exception of a few dates included in the strips; these can be considered as a kind of decoration). The ornamentation is focused on wide strips that are placed along the edges of the items: they are given a wave-like shape[25 - See: Пудов Г. А. Об одном виде русских сундучных изделий (баулы XVIII – XIX веков). История и художественный стиль// Известия Байкальского государственного университета. – 2020. – Т. 30. – №4. – С. 560—565.].
Another striking example is the so-called “podgolovnik”. There is a “podgolovnik” in the collection of Department of folk art[26 - Inv. № М-4.], manufactured in 1750. This item is of considerable size (34x55x42), the outer surfaces of which are upholstered with leather and smooth iron strips, located “in a cage”. Inside each “cell” there are slotted rosettes with mica lining. In the corners of the lid and the top wall there are slotted strips in the form of triangles. On the face of the lock, in a zigzag frame, the inscription is engraved: “1750 September 23rd day of srk ivan chyupyatov”. There are forged handles on the side walls. Inside “podgolovnik” there are twelve compartments, eight of which are with drawers. The podgolovnik, probably of Kholmogory origin, is notable for its durability, solidity and reliability. The symmetry of the ornament, its clarity, “calculated” contribute to this impression. The main thing for the master was the direct purpose of the product as a repository of valuable things and documents. The general artistic solution of the podgolovnik is characterized by masculine roughness, severity, against the background of which all the ornamental delights look like optional additions.
Norwegian «podgolovnik»[27 - Stiftelsen Nordmøre Museum (инв. № KM.02036). This example is not isolated. See, for example, «podgolovnik» from the Hordalan Museum center, inv. № ОМ. 01317.] dates back to 1751. It has a similar design, but slightly different proportions (actually another wall serves as its base). The lid rises with iron curly hinges, on the sides there are simple cast handles. The chest has several shelves from the inside (not preserved). The surfaces of the product (except for the back and side ones) are divided into rectangular segments, in each of which there is a picturesque composition consisting of images of bouquets framed blue. They are painted in the fast, improvised manner of Norwegian wood painting. The rest of the surfaces are painted red. On the edges of the lid there are inscriptions in white paint: «Ek Ols Domis (?) Ann 1751». Perhaps this item served as a travel chest for some official.
Of particular note are products of other proportions, in their shape resembling a chest of drawers, in other words, these are podgolovniks placed on the back wall. The collection of The Department of folk art contains such a “chest of drawers” (dates back to the 18th century)[28 - Inv. № М-34.]. Its front and side walls are upholstered with slotted iron plates with a floral ornament consisting of intertwining curls (background is brown velvet). The bottom and back side are reinforced with solid iron plates. There are several shelves and drawers inside the product, the lower part can be pulled out.
Norwegian products of this type (for example, items from the collection of the Vasa Museum[29 - Inv. №№ 17958, 17960, 17963.]) have identical proportions, structure, they also use a combination of wood and iron. But they are almost devoid of ornaments, their main characteristics are reliability and durability.
Comparing all these items made their differences clear. They are similar only in design and shape, in all other respects they are different. This is due to the fact that chests called «podgolovnik» were made in different historical and cultural settings for different customers. The shape and design of this type of products have undergone changes not depending on the place and time of production, but the purpose and decoration.
Mention should also be made of caskets. One of their types, which must be addressed, are things of a rectangular shape, upholstered with stripes of checked pattern and equipped with curly slit overlays. Russian products of this kind were traditional products of the masters of Veliky Ustyug. For example, a box from The Department of folk art of the State Russian Museum[30 - Inv. № М-8.] was made by master Plisov in 1834. It has rounded corners and a slightly convex lid. On the sides there are two forged handles. The box is painted with light green paint and upholstered with checked iron strips. On the front and back walls there are three slotted masks with figured leaves in the center (the middle one is the largest). In the center of the lid there is a slotted plate with a flap, in the corners there are slotted plates of the same type. There is a pattern of rounded curls on a foil background. The inscription on the lock says “City of Ustyug master Plisov 1834”.
It is appropriate to name another box from the same collection (dates back to the 19th century)[31 - Inv. № М-350.]. It is rectangular and has a flat lid. All surfaces are upholstered with thin checked metal strips, under which blue velvet is placed. In the corners of the lid there are square slotted plates with floral ornaments, in the center there is a round plate. A similar ornament, consisting of intertwining curls, adorns the mask. The lid has a staple handle and a ring. Many items of this kind were done in Ustyug, as evidenced not only by the collection of the Department of folk art, but also by other museums[32 - For example, in the collections of the Kostroma Museum Reserve (inv. № KMZ KOK-18119, KMZ KOK-16113), the Kotlas Museum of Local Lore (inv. № KKM KP 2553), the Nyuksenitsky Museum of Local Lore (inv. № D-778), the Kirishi Museum of Local History (inv. № IB-889) and many others.].
In the collection of the Museum of the city of Kalmar there is a similar box, which dates back to the 17th century[33 - Inv. № KLM 39255:144 (https://digitaltmuseum.se/021025805193/kista).]. It is rectangular in shape, the lid is slightly convex and the corners are rounded. The box is upholstered with checked iron strips. A handle is attached to the lid, at the corners of the lid there are slotted plates with an ornament resembling a clover leaf (under them there are colored lining). On the front side there are three locks with figured faces, the middle one being larger than the lateral ones. From the inside, the box is upholstered with green cloth. The inner edges of the walls are colored green.
Despite the similarity of design, decoration technique and general artistic solution, there are fundamental differences in the style of the works. The boxes vary in content. If the first one is directly related to traditional art, then the second one is belonging to «high» professional art, it is within the framework of the dominant artistic style. The inner essence of the first item is the fabulousness, cheerfulness of folk art, which makes it akin to the paintings of the Russian North, the second is the striving for monarchical solemnity and grandeur.
Another type of box, widespread in Russia and Scandinavia, were small items with a sloping lid. They were usually used while traveling. The traditional principle of covering a wooden base with another material is realized in a box from the collection of the Russian Museum[34 - Inv. № М-355.]. In this case it is figured tin strips and mica. The pattern of stripes framing the lid and walls is made in the form of a wavy garland of curls with trefoils between two ribbed strips. On the lid and on the front wall there are two identical corrugated strips. There are pictures cut out of paper with images of everyday scenes under the mica. Inside the box is pasted over with green paper with a floral pattern. The artistic solution of the thing has a bright, decorative character. It should be noted that many things were decorated in a similar way in Russia in the 17th – 18th centuries, for example, outdoor lamps. Casket from the Kalmar Museum[35 - Inv. № KLM 12221 (https://digitaltmuseum.se/021026251939/kista).] is much larger than Russian in size, but has the same proportions (dates back to the 17th century). It is covered with leather and upholstered with five iron cut strips. On the front side there is a figured face and an internal lock. On the sides there are small forged handles. From the inside, the box is upholstered with coarse fabric. As in the previous case, despite the similarity of forms and proportions, the works differ significantly from each other in essence. The first product is in the context of the development of Russian applied art of the 17th – 18th centuries and reflects the Russian understanding of decorativeness with its multicolor, brilliance, combinations of various materials, and an apparent preference for geometric floral ornaments. The second box in its artistic solution is close to the Swedish chests of the same period, it has little in common with a similar Russian thing in terms of decoration.
Examples of coincidences of the forms of Russian and Scandinavian chest products can be continued. For example, the so-called «sarcophagus» chests, common almost throughout Europe, remained outside the scope of the article[36 - Csillery K.K. Le coffre de charpenterie // Acta ethnographica. Academiae scietiarium Hungaricae. Tomus I, fascilius 1—4. Budapest: Magyar tudományos akadámia, 1950, p. 239—244; Everhard J. Tuugkisten in Oost Nederland. Versiering en typologie. – Oldenzaal: Twents-Gelderse Uitgewerij de Bruyn, 1994.]. They were also made in Russia[37 - Items from the Kizhi State Historical-Architectural and Ethnographic Museum Reserve (inv. №D-2999, D-3000), Shuryshkarsky District Museum Complex (inv. №MEP-356), Pskov-Izborsk United Museum Reserve (№ PMZ KP 33059) and many other museums.] and in Scandinavian countries[38 - For example, a chest from the Västergotland Museum (Inv. No. 1M16—1597). See: https://digitaltmuseum.se/021027887814/kista.]. Without going into a detailed comparison, it should be noted that things are similar in design, but differ in proportions and wall thickness.
It is necessary to briefly touch upon the topic of materials and techniques used by Russian and Scandinavian craftsmen. Both of them used wood (usually oak and pine), iron, leather, skins of sea animals[39 - For example, a chest from the Kirillo-Belozersky Museum (inv. № D-3886) and a chest from the Westmanland Museum (inv. № Vlm-9078). See: https://digitaltmuseum.se/021027806337/kista.], objects were often upholstered with fabrics from the inside. However, on Russian products, unlike Scandinavian ones, mica is found. Both in Russia and in Scandinavia, forging, casting, slotting, engraving, and similar methods of joining the wooden parts of chest products were used. At the same time, the Scandinavians never turned to techniques similar to those adopted in Russia: «frozen» tin, chromolithography on tin sheets[40 - Пудов Г. А. Хромолитография в истории сундучного промысла Урала (конец XIX – начало XX века) // Художественный металл в России и Европе в XIX—XX веках. Тезисы Всероссийской научно-практической конференции. Екатеринбург, 14—15 апреля 2015 года. – Екатеринбург, 2015, С. 50—51.], polished iron[41 - Пудов Г. А. Уральские сундуки XVIII—XX веков: история, мастера, произведения. – СПб.: Первый класс, 2016, С. 280—287.].
The parallels between Russian and Scandinavian products are not accidental, which is also recognized by specialists from Scandinavia[42 - This opinion was expressed in letters to the author of this book by Hanna Wilhelmson, an employee of the Kalmar Museum, and Leif Wallin, an employee of the Northern Museum.]. On some types of chest products, there is observed a close intertwining of artistic traditions that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish Russian items from Scandinavian ones. The analysis of works leads to the conclusion that in the chest production of Russia and Scandinavia there was not just a process of mutual influence, but the related artistic thinking of the masters.
Anyway, it is not worth putting an equal sign between them: despite of the similarity of designs, sizes and purposes, there are differences between Russian and Scandinavian products. They were made in different artistic environments and they are fruits of different cultures.
In this context, the question of influences loses its acuteness. It doesn’t matter who influenced whom. It is only necessary to state that both Russian and Scandinavian artisans were participants of the pan-European cultural process. Therefore, it is more important not to register certain influences, but to analyze the environment, conditions, circumstances that ensured the penetration of creative impulses. The kinship is often a consequence of the commonality of motives and plots common in the art of different countries, as well as the similarity of production methods, the use of the same sources. It is also necessary to take into account the stage-by-stage correspondence in the development of different cultures. According to sensible words by Tatyana Passek, the similarity does not mean anything until the «genetic history» of a particular ornamental scheme is traced, i.e. «Work cannot be carried out without a „paleontological“ analysis, without the use of a genetic approach to phenomena, as to natural stage-by-stage formulations of a single process of society development»[43 - Пассек Т. С. К вопросу о приеме сравнения в истории материальной культуры // Из истории капиталистических формаций. Сб. статей к 45-летию науч. деятельности Н. Я. Марра. – М., Л.: Гос. соц-экон. изд-во, 1933 (Известия ГАИМК. – Вып. 100). С. 330, 340.].
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Three points should be noted as a conclusion.
1. The presence of parallels in Russian and Scandinavian chest production is natural. This is a consequence of centuries-old cultural ties between Russia, on the one hand, and Sweden, Norway and Denmark, on the other. The production of chests is part of a deep and extensive cultural exchange that has existed between these countries since ancient times.
2. Despite of the obvious analogies, Russian and Scandinavian chests have their own artistic style, since they were created on different cultural grounds.
3. A comparative study of Russian and Scandinavian chest products is of particular relevance. Only one aspect needs to be pointed out. Just as researchers of wooden architecture suggest using ancient Scandinavian buildings to reconstruct the external appearance of Old Russia[44 - Мильчик М. И. Взаимовлияние деревянной архитектуры Древней Руси и Скандинавии: русская историография и постановка проблемы // Актуальные проблемы исследования и спасения уникальных памятников деревянного зодчества России. Международный симпозиум. Доклады / сост. и отв. ред. М. И. Мильчик. – СПб.: Лики России, 1999, С. 137—139.], with regard to the production of chest and boxes, the same can be proposed.
Russian chests called «podgolovnik»: artistic style and cultural-historical context
Among Russian chest products, “podgolovniks” occupy a significant place, both in quality and quantity. Many of these items have been preserved in museum collections (they are presented in almost all the capital’s museums, and are often found in provincial ones, especially in the Russian North[45 - It is worth highlighting the collections of the State Historical Museum, Kirillo-Belozersky Museum Reserve, the Arkhangelsk Museum of Wooden Architecture and Folk Art “Small Korely”, Vologda State Historical and Architectural Museum Reserve.]). This fact makes it easier to study this type of chest products, especially since there is a need to its research.
As a rule, independent scientific work is not devoted to certain types of Russian chest products. Most often, chests are considered in general reviews of museum collections or in articles related to certain problems of Russian chest production[46 - These are numerous works of N.N. Goncharova, S.K. Prosvirkina, S.K. Zhegalova, Z.P. Popova, I.N. Ukhanova, A.A. Guilodo. In one of the articles of the author of this work, an attempt is made to characterize one of the types of Ural caskets (Пудов Г. А. Об одном виде уральских сундучных изделий (шкатулки середины XIX – начала XX века) // Уральские сундуки XVIII – XX веков: История. Мастера. Произведения. – СПб.: Первый класс, 2016, С. 280—287).]. Russian chests called «podgolovnik» were no exception: as an independent type of chest products, they received almost no attention.
The purpose of this paper is to identify the design and artistic features of chests-“podgolovniks”, to determine their place in the European history of chest production. The main tasks include: clarification of the role of external influences that took place in the process of the appearance of “podgolovnik” in Russia and the gradual formation of their artistic style, analysis of specific works. The research timeframe is XVI – XIX centuries.
While working on the article, information from special literature, both foreign and Russian, was used. Numerous items from domestic and foreign museums served as the research material.
It should be noted that only preliminary conclusions are currently possible on this topic. Further additions and adjustments are not excluded.
* * *
By the definition of Pavel Savvaitov, «podgolovnik is a low chest or casket with an inclined lid, bound with iron, with an internal lock and with pulling out drawers for the jewels»[47 - Савваитов П. Описание старинных русских утварей, одежд, оружия, ратных доспехов и конского прибора, в азбучном порядке расположенное. – СПб.: тип. Императорской Академии наук, 1896, С.104.].
One of the earliest mentions of the word «podgolovnik» occurs in 1574 in the Book of the Volokolamsk monastery parish[48 - Словарь русского языка XI—XVII вв. / гл. ред. Ф. П. Филин. Вып. 15. – М.: Наука. 1989, С. 245.]. In the census of things by the archbishop of Kholmogory and Vazhsky Athanasius in 1702, a lot of chests are indicated, and among them «red leather podgolovnik is bound with carved tin-plated iron» in which money was kept[49 - Гончарова Н. Н. Русские расписные сундуки XVII—XVIII веков в собрании Исторического музея. – М.: ГИМ, 2018. – (Золотой фонд Исторического музея), С. 17.]. The «podgolovnik» is mentioned among the purchases of Catherine I in 1722[50 - Забелин И. Домашний быт русских царей и цариц в XVI и XVII столетиях. Материалы. Том III. – М.: Языки славянской культуры, 2003 (материалы к тому II), С. 768.].
The «podgolovnik» is an object made of wood, most often oak. It is shaped like a box with a beveled lid. As a rule, the lid consists of two parts, which are connected by hinges: a narrow one, located parallel to the bottom, and a wide, inclined one. The proportions of the podgolovniks were not the same. They ranged from very exquisite pieces to massive large chests. From the inside, the chests were divided by wooden plates into several compartments (their number is not strictly defined), often boxes were hung on the inner walls, equipped with an additional system of locks[51 - As in items from the collections of the State Museum Reserve «Alexandrovskaya sloboda» (inv. № D 1479) and the State Rostov-Yaroslavl Architectural and Art Museum Reserve (inv. № D-1249).]. There are metal handles on the side walls of the podgolovniks. Products were upholstered with iron strips, either openwork or solid. Mica or green (sometimes red or of both colours) cloth was placed under them. A shaped iron plate protected the key hole. It was often decorated with engraving. Among the slotted metal ornament, sometimes there are inscriptions indicating the year of creation of the thing and the master (or owner)[52 - «Podgolovnik» from Kirillo-Belozersky Museum, on which the initials and date of creation are inscribed: 1771 (inv. № D-118).]. On the inside of the lid or on the walls of the northern items, you can find a painting[53 - The collection of the State Historical Museum, for example inv. № ГИМ 43803 (Гончарова Н. Н. Русские расписные сундуки XVII—XVIII веков в собрании Исторического музея. – М.: ГИМ, 2018. – (Золотой фонд Исторического музея). С. 108—111).]. In the description of the property of the boyar Fyodor Shaklovity (XVII century) it is stated: «… Kolmogorsky podgolovnik, painted in gold, upholstered with white slotted iron…»[54 - Розыскные дела о Федоре Шакловитом и его сообщниках. – М., 1893. – Т. 4. – разд. паг., стб.112.].
It should be noted that the decoration of the «podgolovnik» was different. In most cases, it depended on the customer. There are both richly decorated items, and very modest in an artistic sense.
The «podgolovnik» served to store documents, valuables, money, letters, and they were placed under the traveler’s head on the way (this is considered an explanation of the name of this type of chests). The member of the Swedish embassy Iohann Keelburger wrote: «Podgolovniks are not made to be written on, because they are upholstered with various tinned iron hoops; Russians, on the other hand, write both in colleges and elsewhere, never except on their knees; but such podgolovniks are made for travelers for winter period and are very convenient for laying under the head in a sleigh, because it is known that they tend to put almost a bed in Russian sleighs». However, this purpose of the podgolovniks was not the only one. There are cases when they were the subject of equipment for hunters and were taken on the hunt.
Podgolovniks were common in all strata of the population: they were found in peasant huts, in the houses of the townspeople, and in the chambers of the highest nobility, and in the royal mansions[55 - Костомаров Н. И., Забелин И. Е. О жизни, быте и нравах русского народа / авт. послесл. С. О. Шмидт. – М.: Просвещение, 1996, С. 42, 307.]. Such items have been made for a long time not only in the Russian North, but also in other regions of the country.
It is often stated that «podgolovnik» is a typical Russian product[56 - Гилодо А. А. Сундуки (http://www.sundook.ru/article/a02.html#sn10 (http://www.sundook.ru/article/a02.html#sn10)).]. This is not entirely true. A similar form of chests existed in many European countries (although the purpose of the items was sometimes different). Let us consider Russian «podgolovnik» against the background of foreign works.
In the collection of the department of folk art of the Russian Museum there is a «podgolovnik»[57 - Inv. № М-4.], manufactured in 1750. It is of big size (34x55x42), the outer surfaces are upholstered with leather and smooth iron strips arranged as a grid. Inside each «cell» there are slotted rosettes with mica lining. In the corners of the lid and the top wall there are slotted strips in the form of triangles. On the face of the castle, in a zigzag frame, the inscription is engraved: «1750 September 23rd day of srk ivan chyupyatov». On the side walls there are curly handles. Inside «podgolovnik» there are twelve compartments, eight of which are with drawers. The «podgolovnik», which is probably of Kholmogory origin, is notable for its solidity and reliability. The symmetry of the ornament, its clarity, contribute to this impression. The main intention of the master was the direct purpose of the product as a repository of valuable items and documents. The general artistic solution of this chest is characterized by masculine roughness, severity, against the background of which all ornamental delights look like optional additions[58 - Confirmation of this is the «podgolovnik» from the collection of «Artistic culture of the Russian North» (inv. № Гф 346). It is decorated with multi-colored straw, the main motives are geometric: triangles, stars, rhombuses, etc. Decorating techniques and materials, unusual for this type of product, in this case led to an artistically ambiguous result.].
There is an interesting «podgolovnik» of small size (14.5x16.0x9.5) in the collection of the Sergiev Posad Museum Reserve[59 - Inv. №3972-д.]. According to museum attribution, it was made in the 18th century in the village Pavlovo, Gorbatovsky district. The item is made of oak, tinted, bound with solid iron strips, between which there are four metal openwork plates (on the lid). The latter resemble a human figure with arms spread out to the sides. Under the pads there are pieces of red mica. There is a mortise lock on the front wall of the chest, and molded handles on the sides. The article in question is interesting not only as evidence of the widespread use of chests (they were made not only in the Russian North), but also as an illustration of their rich artistic potential. In contrast to the work from the department of folk art, the chest of the Sergiev Posad Museum Reserve is distinguished by its special privacy, even being like a toy, a kind of coziness in its external look.
English product («desk box», in a private collection)[60 - Fiske J. When oak was new. English furniture & daily life 1530—1700. – Ipswich, Massachusets: The Belmont press, 2013, p. 47.] is similar to the Russians’ in design and form. But other aspects are significantly different. The item is decorated with skillfully made carvings, consisting of images of dragons, rosettes, tulips-like flowers. The cover is flat. The product was used for writing[61 - In the Russian North, inkpots in the form of «podgolovnik» were made from copper alloys in the 17th century (for example, in the collection of the State Russian Museum: inv. № ДРМ 3228). This may indicate not only the original purpose of Russian chests called «podgolovnik», but also the ways of penetration of this type of chest products into Russia.]. The clarity, compositional balance of the ornament, confidently carved images testify to the experience of the master, his high professionalism.
Another english product (dated 1580—1620) which is now in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum[62 - Inv. № W.4:1, 2—1911.] is also interesting. It is made of oak inlaid with boxwood and bog oak (eight drawers inside are made of poplar). The upper part and the hinged lid of the product are decorated with strips of checkerboard ornament. Images of buildings in the style of decorative motifs adopted on «nonsuch» chests are placed on the front, back and side walls. Each side also has an inlaid image of an eight-pointed star. There is a metal mask on the front wall. This «podgolovnik» has different proportions compared to the previous one (it also served as a writing instrument). It testifies to the stability and «flexibility» of the form of this type of english chest products, to the variety of their decoration. English craftsmen in the 19th century made such items, decorated not only with mosaics from multi-colored pieces of wood, but also with patterns borrowed from «Berlin» woolen products[63 - For example, from the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum, inv. № W.3: 1 to 7—1925. Textile items (clothing and interior elements) decorated with cross-stitch embroidery using «Berlin wool» were called «Berlin» products. thin, brightly colored woolen threads.].
German products («Geldwechsler-Schatulle», «Reise-Schreibpult») are similar to Russian and english in appearance[64 - Kunst- und Antiquitätenauktion 25./26. September 2003. Stuttgarter Auktionshaus dr. Fritz Nagel. Katalog. – Deizisau: Druck Schefenacker, 1999, Farbtaf. 1689, 1694.]. Their internal cavities are separated by boxes and shelves. Various techniques were used in the decoration. The craftsmen of the items under consideration, made in the 18th century from walnut, maple, birch and oak, turned to intarsia, painting and coloring. The decorative design of the products is based on a combination of geometric and floral motifs. A painted glass plate is placed in the center. There are brass handles and covers. In general, these are highly artistic works of the German Baroque, created by professional craftsmen. «Podgolovnik» served as a place for keeping money of the money changer and a traveller’s writing instrument.
Norwegian «podgolovnik»[65 - Stiftelsen Nordmøre Museum (inv. № KM.02036).] dates back to 1751. It has the same construction as other things of this kind, but slightly different proportions. The lid rises with iron curly hinges, on the sides there are simple cast handles. From the inside, the chest has several shelves (not preserved). The surfaces of the product (except for the back and side ones) are divided into rectangular segments, in each of which, in a blue frame, there is a pictorial composition consisting of images of bouquets. They are painted in the fast, improvised manner of Norwegian wood painting. The rest of the surfaces are painted red. On the edges of the lid there are inscriptions in white paint: «Ek Ols Domis (?) Ann 1751». Perhaps the thing served as a travel chest for the official.
The English product is particularly noteworthy. It has other proportions, in its shape resembling a chest of drawers[66 - Macquoid P. A history of English furniture. In four volumes. Vol. I. The age of Oak. 1500—1660. – New York: Dover Publications, 1972, fig.158.]. It has a smooth slanted cover; the front and side walls are decorated with geometric and floral designs (low relief). The background is processed with shading. The lower half of the product slides out. The work is characterized by clarity, confidence in the work of the carver, and the easily readable ornament testifies to the rich experience of the master.
In the collection of the department of folk art of the Russian Museum there is a chest, in proportions resembling a chest of drawers (dates back to the 18th century)[67 - Inv. № М-34.]. Its front and side walls are upholstered with slotted iron plates with a floral ornament consisting of intertwining curls (background is brown velvet). The bottom and back side are reinforced with solid iron plates. There are several shelves and drawers inside the product, the lower part can be pulled out.
Such a parallel between the north Russian and english works is not accidental, in view of the close trade ties that were established between Russia and England through the northern ports in the middle of the 16th century[68 - It is necessary to remember not only the significant trade privileges granted by Ivan IV to English merchants, but also the presence of close cultural ties between Russia and England at that time (Накашидзе Н. Т. Русско-английские отношения во второй половине XVI в. – Тбилиси: изд-во Тбилис. гос. ун-та, 1955, С. 66, 75—77, 78, 82, 113, 114).]. It is possible that the very type of chest product, called «podgolovnik» in Russia, penetrated from Western Europe precisely through the cities of the Russian North. Moreover, such cases are known in relation to other types of Russian folk art. The researcher of folk art Lev Dinces wrote about the European origin of the so-called «Vologda glass» (embroidery), which penetrated into Russia through english merchants who traded in Arkhangelsk[69 - Богуславская И. Я. Проблемы народного искусства в трудах Л. А. Динцеса// Сообщения ГРМ. Вып. XI. – М.: Изобразительное искусство, 1976, С. 4. In addition, according to one version, «frozen» tin as a technique for decorating chests penetrated into Russia (the Urals) from England. (Промыслы Екатеринбургского уезда Пермской губернии / собр. и обраб. под ред. П. Н. Зверева; стат. отд-ние Екатеринб. земской управы. – Екатеринбург: Екатеринб. уезд. земство, 1889, С. 10).]. In other words, the introduction of «podgolovnik» into Russia was probably the result of a brief flourishing of Russian-English relations in the 16th century.
Comparison of all these items made their differences clear. As mentioned above, they are similar only in design and shape, in all other respects they are different. This is because chests were made in different historical and cultural settings for different customers. Russian masters, having appreciated the merits of foreign works, their convenient, practical forms, adopted only the construction[70 - The fact that in Russia (in particular, in the Russian North) also existed special devices called «podgolovnik» for sleeping testifies to the regularity of the forms of Russian and foreign chest products. They represented an inclined plane on bars. Chests called «podgolovnik» of other types were also made, but also with a sloping plane (Бломквист Е. Э. Крестьянские постройки русских, украинцев и белорусов// Восточнославянский этнографический сборник: Очерки народной материальной культуры русских, украинцев и белорусов в XIX – начале XX в. / [отв. ред. С. А. Токарев]. – М.: изд-во Акад. наук СССР, 1956. – (АН СССР. Труды Института этнографии имени Н. Н. Миклухо-Маклая. Нов. серия; Т. 31). С. 431).]. «Transplanted» in the Russian «soil», the Russian product acquired significant differences from the «originals», naturally became part of a number of domestic products. Thus, not the shape and design of this type of product has undergone changes depending on the place and time of production, but the purpose and decoration.
In this context, the question of influences loses its acuteness. It is only necessary to state that Russian and Western European artisans were participants of a single cultural process. Therefore, it is more important not to register certain influences, not to look for similarities in specific details, but to analyze the environment, conditions, circumstances that ensured the fusion of creative impulses.
It is important to point out the term «hidden existence», which is used in folklore studies to denote some of the features of the existence of works. It seems that the acceptance or rejection of certain forms and ornaments by the artisans of chests also depended on their «hidden existence» in the local tradition. Only forms of products and ornamental motifs similar to those coming from outside took root. The researcher of Russian folklore Yu. Smirnov pointed out: «… what is borrowed is what corresponds either – less often – to the old, dying ones, or – more often – to the new, emerging, norms of the borrowing folk tradition. Consequently, when stating a borrowing, one should always look for local, actually ethnic, behind it or next to it, whether it is only traces, pieces and fragments of the forgotten»[71 - Смирнов Ю. И. Направленность сравнительных исследований по фольклору // Славянский и балканский фольклор. Обряд. Текст. – М.: Наука, 1981, С. 9—10.]. These words are true not only in relation to folklore, but also to chest production.
Published: Русские сундуки-подголовники: художественный стиль и культурно-исторический контекст // Вестник культуры и искусств. – 2020. – №2 (62). – С. 71—77.
The chest images in painting
From the dawn of time, the chest has been used to store valuables, documents, and food supplies. It played a special role in the wedding ceremony. It is not surprising that from an early time the chest was reflected in the works of fine arts.
In the scientific literature, this topic has not received sufficient coverage, although in some works there are references to the image of certain chests and caskets in paintings, book miniatures, frescoes, icon painting[72 - See for example: Гончарова Н. Н. Русские расписные сундуки XVII – XVIII вв. в собрании Исторического музея. – М.: ГИМ, 2018, С. 9, 10, 11.]. Researchers most often only state the fact of the image of certain chest products. Perhaps the most thorough research in this area belongs to the german researcher Paul Schubring[73 - Schubring P. Cassoni. Truhen und Truhebilder der italienischen Frürenaissance. —Leipzig: Verlag von Karl W. Hierseman, 1915, S. 68—76.]. His work, however, deals only with italian cassones (wedding chests).
This paper attempts to summarize information on this topic, trace the features of the image of chest products in the works of easel and monumental painting, book graphics.
It should be emphasized that the author involved only the most demonstrative works of art. The number of images of chests and caskets is truly limitless, it is impossible to cover everything in one review.
I
As early as in the painting of antique vases one can see chests and caskets with flat or sloping lids, each of which consists of four pillars and walls made of several planks. Sometimes the products are depicted in such detail that not only the design differs, but also the colors and ornamental motifs. These items were used in religious ceremonies and as home furniture. As an example antique vases from the Hermitage collection can be indicated[74 - Inv. №№ Б.500, Б.504, Б.511, Б.524, Б.1658, Б.1700, Б.1703 and other.]. Based on these drawings, we can conclude that the oldest design used to create furniture in ancient Egypt has retained its popularity.
Images of chests and caskets in Italian Renaissance art are most common. Some of them are made very carefully, so they are used as historical sources. A fresco by Giotto from the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua (1304—1306; in the scene of the Annunciation to St. Anne) shows a large red chest with a flat lid and straight walls. It is upholstered with thin iron strips, on the front side there is a figured metal plate protecting the lock. According to Italian tradition, the chest is in the bedroom. In this case, we can name two works by the Sienese artist Sano di Pietro. The first is The Nativity of the Virgin (1448—1452), in which cassone chests stand along the beds[75 - Stored in the Museum of Art of the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, USA).]. The front side of each of them is decorated with a painted floral ornament against a gold background, located in three rectangular figures. Since the lids on the chests are flat, the latter are used as benches. In another work by Sano di Pietro, The Birth and Naming of John the Baptist (1450—60)[76 - Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), inv. №1975.1.44.] cassons are also located along the beds. Unlike the chests depicted on the previous canvas, they are devoid of painting. Their only decoration is profiled panels. Antonello da Messina on the canvas «Saint Jerome at work» (around1475)[77 - Stored in the National Gallery (London), inv. № NG 1418.] depicted a small chest with a flat lid and carved legs, reminiscent of Stollenrtuhe (one of the common types of chests). It is locatecd to the right of the saint. The item is devoid of any decorations, it is simple and elegant. And in the famous painting by Titian «Venus of Urbino» (1538)[78 - Stored in the Uffizi (Florence), inv. №1890 no. 1437.] two chests are shown in the background. They have rounded walls and are decorate perhaps with intarsia. The ornament consists of whimsically twisting vegetative scrolls and anthropomorphic images. Even on the front panels of the chests themselves, wedding cassones were depicted, as, for example, on a Florentine work of the 15th century from the collection of the State Hermitage[79 - Фаенсон Л. Доска от кассона флорентийской работы XV века с изображением свадебного празднества // Сообщения ГЭ. Вып. XXXV. – Л.: Аврора, 1972, С. 11—13. See also: Faenson L. Italian cassoni from the art collections of Soviet museums. – L.: Avrora Art publishers, 1983, p. 28, 32.]. Two servants on a donkey carry richly decorated chests with sloping lids. Their sizes do not correspond to the real ones. Examples of the image of Italian chests on frescoes, canvases and panels can be listed almost endlessly. Thus, based on the images examined, it can be concluded that chest production has developed significantly: in the 15th century in Italy, various designs and techniques for decorating products were used.
Painters of other countries also paid attention to chest items. On the triptych of Pieter Aartsen «Adoration of the Magi» (1560)[80 - Stored in the Rijksmuseum. Inv. № SK-A-1909. See: Os H. van, Kok J.P.F., Luijten G., Scholten F. Netherlandish art in the Rijksmuseum. 1400—1600. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Zwolle: Uitgeverij Waanders b.v., 2000, p. 193.] a large chest is depicted in some detail. It has a sloping lid reinforced with thin wooden strips from the inside; walls are straight, upholstered with iron strips, on the sides there are handles and terer are no legs. The chest may have been upholstered with leather having an ornament made in the embossing technique. And on the canvas of Hieronymus Bosch «Death of a Merchant» (1485—1490)[81 - Stored in the National Gallery of Art (Washington), inv. №1952.5.33. See: https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.41645.html.] even more detailed than the thing discussed above, a chest is depicted, reproducing the design of tuugkist («sarcophagus») chests. In the grooves of the four «pillars» the boards are strengthened (they also form the legs) that make up the walls. The lid is flat, it was raised and lowered with the help of wooden hinges. The front side of the chest (lower part) is decorated with geometric motifs performed in carving technique. Attention is drawn to the powerful iron plate that protects the key hole. It consists of two parts of different shapes (triangular and round), superimposed on each other. A long iron hinge is attached to the lid. The title is on the left. An interesting detail shows how the lid was held up: a dagger was used. In German painting, images of chest products are no less common. They can be seen, for example, on Stefan Lochner’s Altar of the Cologne City Cartridge (after 1426), on his own painting Madonna in the Gazebo (1440), on the left wing of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grunewald (1506—1515). There is a chest with flat lids and walls, consisting of paneled panels; a chest with a flat lid, the walls of which are connected «in a dovetail»; richly decorated casket with a gable lid. The desire of German painters for a reliable depiction of objects (which is called by researchers as one of the features of German Renaissance painting[82 - Либман М. Я. Дюрер и его эпоха. Живопись и графика Германии конца XV и первой половины XVI века. – М.: Искусство, 1972, С. 29—30, 176 and others.]) made it possible to consider their canvases as a source of the history of everyday life.
The collection of the Cleveland Museum of Art contains a portrait of Sir Anthony Mildmay (around 1590—1593) by the English painter Nicholas Hilliard (around 1547—1619)[83 - Inv. №1926.554.]. To the right of the person being portrayed there is a large black chest with a sloping lid, upholstered with iron strips arranged as a checked one. On the front side there are three figured iron hinges. Among the furnishings of the tent of an English aristocrat, the chest occupies one of the main places.
By the 18th—19th centuries, when chests gradually fell into disuse in the higher social strata, their appearance changed. Like the other changes mentioned above, this was also reflected in painting. An idea of such chests can be given by numerous canvases and drawings by the famous Norwegian artist Adolf Tidemand (1814—1876), stored in the National Museum of Art, architecture and design (Oslo). For example, on the «The old pantry in Vik» (1867)[84 - Inv. № NG. M. 00302—029. Vikøy is a village in the county of Hordaland.] four large peasant chests are depicted. They are decorated with paintings (this is the traditional Norwegian «rosemåling») and iron figured strips. They have sloping lids and high carved plinths. Similar products are kept in many museums in Scandinavia.
If we are talking about the countries of Eastern Europe, then it is necessary to mention the altar image «The adoration of the Magi» (1514) from the Peter and Paul Church of the village of Drysviaty, Braslav district, Vitebsk region[85 - Located in the Museum of Ancient Belarusian Culture of the Institute of Art History, Ethnography and Folklore of Aational Academy of Sciences of Belarus (Помнікі мастацкой культуры Беларусі. – Мінск: Беларусь, 2012, С. 18, 19).]. One of the characters is holding a wooden casket upholstered with figured iron strips. The casket is depicted in great detail, the master obviously had some kind of sample before his eyes. The walls of the product are decorated with carved ornaments, consisting of floral scrolls and plot scenes. The gable cover is devoid of decorations. This image can serve as reliable evidence of the early acquaintance of Belarusian craftsmen with European products.
Another type of art, where images of chests and caskets are found, was engraving. Especially often German, Dutch and French artists and engravers turned to this plot. On the engraving of Albrecht Dürer «Saint Jerome» (1511)[86 - Stored in the British Museum (London), inv. № E,3.170.] among the many furnishings of the cell there is a small chest with a flat lid and a figured metal mask. It is placed on a high carved plinth. On the side walls there are figured cast handles. And on the engraving «A young couple and an old woman with a piggy bank» (1589 – 1607)[87 - Stored in the Ruijksmuseum (Amsterdam), inv. № RP-P-1884-A-7880.] Jan Sanredam depicts a box with a trapezoidal lid in which coins are stored. The box is upholstered with iron strips and possibly cloth. On the front side there is a metal mask. During the period when the engraving was created, many similar caskets were made in the Netherlands, so the artist probably had a sample in front of him. The engraving of Abraham Boss «The Footman Following the Decree of 1633»[88 - Stored in the Ruijksmuseum (Amsterdam), inv. № RP-P-2009-1053.] depicts a chest in which a servant puts his master’s suits. This is a large chest with a sloping lid, upholstered with fabric. From the inside and along the edges it is reinforced with iron strips. The front wall is narrowed down. On the sides there are molded handles of a simple shape.
