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4. High degree of formal text structuring (i.e., division of the text into sections and subsections with appropriate headings).
5. Tendency to cite and to include into the lists of references the most recent publications in the field.
6. Frequent occurrence of the phrases which provide reference to the text itself (e.g., "This paper discusses …").
7. Use of long sentences with complicated grammar.
8. Strong emphasis on generalizations and highly theoretical issues.
9. Frequent use of footnotes and long remarks in parentheses.
10. Tendency to follow a certain pattern of textual organization (e.g., problem-solution).
Home assignment:
Academic Vocabulary in Use Unit 1.
Lesson 2. Noun
There are many more nouns than any other part of speech. Since nouns are numerous types in English, you are constantly having to make decisions. For example, you may have to decide if a noun requires a capital letter or not. You may also have to decide if a noun should be in the plural form, and if so, how to form the plural. Most important, in English, you will have to decide if a noun can be counted or not. This distinction can affect of the grammar of a sentence, including which quantity words can occur with a noun.
A. Nouns can be classified as follows:
B. Proper Nouns and Capitalization
1. Use proper nouns for the names of specific people or things, including names of countries, languages, nationalities, cities, oceans, rivers, lakes, MI mins, parks, buildings, stores, schools, religions, historical periods of events, styles of art and architecture, months, holidays, and days of week.
2. Always use a capital letter with a proper noun.
My birthday is i a June.
Henry Wright went to Columbia University last September to study French.
Д When a proper noun is accompanied by the definite article the, do not capitalize the article unless it is the first word of the sentence or the first word of a title, such as the title of a book or movie.
The Thames runs through London, past the Houses of Parliament.
3. Use a capital letter with adjectives derived from proper nouns.
She is wearing a sari made of Indian silk.
Capital letters are not used for areas of study (unless you name a specific course), relatives (unless you name a specific person), seasons, or centuries.
He finds biology fascinating. She is taking Biology 101 this semester.
My uncle met me after school. I saw Uncle Jack in the diner.
I can't wait for spring.
She was born in the middle of the twentieth century.
4. Nouns that do not name unique one-of-a-kind places, people, or objects are called “common nouns" Do not use a capital letter with a common noun unless it is the first word of a sentence. Most nouns arc common nouns. Here are some typical common nouns: bird house happiness essay computer history'
Do not use a capital letter to emphasize a common noun or to suggest that it is important.
My Boss. Mr. Morris, Is giving his Assistant a big Raise.
Task 1. In the following sentences adapted from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, find the proper nouns and capitalize them.
1. Shorthand probably began in ancient greece and rome.
2. The historian xenophon used shorthand to write the memoirs of the philosopher socrutus.
3. Later, a roman, marcus tullius tiro, invented a system to record the speeches made by the great orator cicero.
4. Many people in this period learned shorthand, including julius caesor.
5. In the eighteenth century, because of the industrial revolution, the use of shorthand grew in popularity in business administration.
6. The popularity of shorthand continued to grow in europe with the result that over 400 systems exist for the english language alone.
Countable Nouns and Their Plurals
Countable nouns form one of the two classes of common nouns.
1. A countable noun is a noun that you can count. You can talk about one, two, more, several, many, seventeen, and so on. Countable nouns have a plural form,
A few countable nouns occur in the plural form only and cannot be counted, examples are clothes, pants, Jeans, shorts, and pajamas.
2. The most common way to form a plural countable noun is to add -s or -es, it even when there is a numeral included to signify more than one.
Never add a plural -s ending to an adjective:
"They bought some specials gifts.
3. For countable nouns ending in a consonant + -y, change the -v to -ies.
However, when a vowel precedes -y just add -s for the plural form:
4. Add -es to countable nouns ending in a consonant + -o. For countable nouns ending in -f or -fe, change the ~f to a -v and add -es.
5. Some countable nouns have highly irregular plural forms and do not end in -s.
Use your dictionary to check any plural forms that you are not sure of.
6. Very rarely, you need an apostrophe before the -s to form the plural. You do this only when you form the plural of a letter of the alphabet or the plural of a word referred to as a word rather than the concept it represents.
I like to get Q’s in Scrabble.
This paragraph has too many and's in it.
In all other cases, an apostrophe with a noun signals possession, not number.
Task 2. Give the plural form of the following nouns. Use a dictionary to check your answers. Do not rely on general patterns; these often have exceptions.
Foot, house, mouse, woman, goose.
Belief, comedy, donkey, radio, hoof, thief, tomato.
Nouns Keeping Foreign Plurals
Plurals of the nouns of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew origin are often used in English scientific writing even though their English plurals may exist in general use.
(Academic Writing and Speaking Сourse Pack)
D Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns form the second of the two classes of common nouns.
1. Uncountable nouns are used for nouns describing a mass, a natural substance, food, an abstract concept, a game, a disease, or a subject of study. Some examples follow.
A mass: clothing, equipment, furniture, garbage, homework, jewelry', luggage, machinery, money, scenery, traffic, transportation
A natural substance: air, blood, coal, copper, cotton, hair, heat, ice, iron, silver; water, wood, wool
Food; bacon, beef, bread, coffee, milk, rice, sugar
An abstract concept: advice, courage, education, fun, happiness, health, honesty, information, knowledge, success
A game: checkers, chess, soccer, tennis
A disease: arthritis, diabetes, influenza, measles, smallpox
A subject of study: biology, economics, history, physics, statistics
Countable and uncountable nouns vary from language to language. Also, nouns that are countable in English, such as furniture, information, and hair, may be uncountable in other languages.
Uncountable nouns have no plural form. You can use nouns such as pieces, items.
or bits to indicate exact quantities.
She took a great deal of luggage on her trip, (singular; uncountable)
She took ten pieces of luggage on her trip.
Luggage has no plural form; the countable noun piece is used to indicate the number of items.
Note that even the uncountable nouns that end in -s in the list in item D such as diabetes and physics) are singular and uncountable.
Some countable nouns can be considered as countable or uncountable, depending on the context. Used as an uncountable noun, they refer to the concept in general; used as a countable noun, they refer to a particular one. Uncountable:
Chocolate is fattening. (All chocolate: generalization about a mass noun.)
Countable: He ate a chocolate. (One piece, one serving in a box of chocolates.) He ate four more chocolates.
Uncountable: Life is precious. (Generalization: life as a concept.)
Countable: She leads a busy life. (Specifically the type of life she leads is a busy one. It could be a boring life, a dangerous life, and so on.)
People say that a cat has nine lives.
Task 3. In the context of each of the following sentences, adapted from Panati’s Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things, indicate in the spaces after the nouns whether they are countable (C) or uncountable (U).
Levi Strauss came to California in the 1850s dining the Gold Rush to make clothes for the miners (-). He knew that they would wear out their clothes quickly, so he made them out of canvas (-), which was used at the time to make tents (-). Later he replaced the canvas with denim – a softer fabric (-) originating from the city of Nimes in (-) France. In Europe this fabric was known as “serge de Nimes" and because of the way (-) it was pronounced, it came to be known as denim in (-) America. Strauss began to dye the miners' pants blue so that stains would not show, and this color increased their popularity (-). To achieve a snug fit cowboys (-) would soak them in water (-), then put them on and lie in the sun to shrink the material (-) as it dried.
(Grammar Troublespots: 81)
E. Quantity words
Some quantity words can he used only with uncountable nouns, with countable singular nouns, or with countable plural nouns. Others can be used with both uncountable nouns and countable plural nouns. Refer to the following chart for correct usage.
Note the difference between few and a few, little and a little. Few and little have a negative connotation and mean hardly any or almost no. A few and it little are positive and mean some.
She has few friends. She has a few friends.
The difference between few and a few means that the two sentences above must be continued in different ways.
She has few friends, so she stays home most weekends.
She has a few friends, so she often goes out with them on weekends.
Use not with any. Use no and none alone.
Where are the screwdrivers? I don't have аnу. I have no screwdrivers. I have none.
In standard English, do not use two negative expressions in a clause,
He doesn't have no toots. He doesn't have none.
Task 4. The student who wrote the following paragraph made mistakes with nouns, plurals, and quantity words. Correct the errors.
My best Friend and I wanted to take another trips to Europe and africa, but we didn't have many money. When I saw my two ancient Suitcase, I knew it was lime to buy some new luggages. I looked in the windows of all the store in the center of Town. But all I saw was clothing. I tried on three dress, but i didn't buy one. At last. I saw a wonderful bag made of spanish leather, but it was very 'expensive and I didn't have no money. I decided to go shopping other day.
Task 5. Identify the sentences with a mistake and correct it.
1. A number of U.S. lecturers comes to our University next week.
2. Critically he studied the article on transgenic food products.
