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2 (#ulink_73a86286-a44d-5d69-af88-6ec2f110b8f5)
Tuned-in teaching (#ulink_73a86286-a44d-5d69-af88-6ec2f110b8f5)
2.1 Acquiring English (#ulink_ba612c68-7708-557d-832b-971eba4a93fe)
2.2 Tuning in (#ulink_75fbece6-5768-5404-a64f-01690ce00ff6)
2.3 The child’s expectations of the teacher (#ulink_9e27f535-6082-583c-82f6-cc1d2a81db60)
2.4 Enabling learning (#ulink_243e4183-9a7e-5a87-9e7b-94a8817ad25f)
2.5 Motivation and emotional literacy (#ulink_124c6c83-eb14-52be-a44a-12bbdccac06f)
2.6 Monitoring and assessing (#ulink_9f90830e-772f-51c2-835e-9c7f672833f1)
2.7 Teacher input (#ulink_10a27b40-bfd8-5de9-b2e0-2cfe76aa1a8c)
2.1 Acquiring English
Teaching young children effectively is not only about having natural common sense, it is about making sure that one has the knowledge and skills to interest children in the world about them.
(Engel)
The more we learn about neuroscience, the clearer it becomes that the human brain now develops much sooner than we had believed. Early stimulation can be highly effective. The spread of technology means many more young children can be exposed to English, a language different from L1, at an earlier age.
Although the Internet includes some very useful support material, we need to realise that a lot of content on the Internet is privately published and therefore not necessarily rigorously edited – in some cases information may be incorrect or not suitable for young children. For example, on some sites about the analysis of the 44 sounds of English, /oo/ is sometimes portrayed as representing just one sound rather than two (as in book and food). Many children already know this, however, through playing with language rhyming sounds, story refrains and rhymes.
Today’s young children may well have moved into the stage of being able to analyse and recognise patterns earlier than on Piaget’s original scale (see Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive developmental stages). This may be as a result of visual and oral exposure, especially from screens, from an early age. Due to children’s diverse home experiences, it is quite difficult for teachers to assess how these experiences have developed children’s self-learning strategies for language learning in either L1 or English.
2.2 Tuning in
In many primary schools learning language remains a different experience from learning a core-curricular subject like History. Learning language is still a shared activity – a dialogue between the child and the teacher, older children, parents and extended family. Vygotsky used the term ‘social constructivism’ to describe these moments when children and others who are more experienced make meaning together, by both concentrating on the context of an experience.
Without understanding the whole child it can be difficult to tune in to his or her needs. The English teacher needs to know something of the use of languages and the type of English-language interest in the child’s home, in order to measure how much support and encouragement can be expected for homework (which in primary school becomes a regular additional consolidation activity).
Parents also need to understand the teaching methods and their role in homework. Without understanding the importance of the Playful Approach to provide motivation, homework can become a dreaded task. Without cooperation and helpful explanations, parents may find it difficult to tune in to their child’s English lesson positively, or to understand the child’s progress. Parents might compare the English lesson with the teacher-led instruction used in the other subject lessons.
2.2.1 Teacher–child relationships
By primary school a child’s relationship with the English teacher has developed from that of a protective aunty-like figure in the pre-school years, to one of a caring teacher built on mutual respect. As primary-school pupils, children feel more grown up and more in control of themselves, ready to take responsibility. They now want to be independent and show they can make things happen, although they still need support and guidance from adults. Getting the balance right in the period between pre-school and upper primary is essential. The lower-primary years are an important bridge between the two, in which children need adult help to confidently develop over time their own self-learning strategies as they matures holistically. In helping the children, the teacher is not just thinking of teaching English, but also of adapting English input to the holistically-maturing children’s needs.
Teachers are children’s role models; they are the main source of the children’s input, guiding and tutoring them whilst sharing with them spoken and written language to meet their self-learning strategies, needs and levels.
Young children still want to please their teacher and their parents, too. They look for their approval as it gives them confidence and assurance that they are doing the right thing. Young children want to feel successful, and can now measure their own ability, contrasting it quite accurately with others in their class. They generally know the ‘ranking’ of children in their class and teachers may hear comments like Mari’s the best at English. Akira knows a lot of English words about food. Teachers often try to disguise group levels by calling them different animal names or colours, but children usually work out which is the top group! Children talk about who is the best openly amongst themselves and often explain it to their parents, too.
By lower primary most children are fluent L1 speakers and have been introduced to more formal L1 education (reading, writing, mathematics and science). At the same time they are still unconsciously absorbing more spoken English on which they base the acquisition of formal English literacy skills – reading, spelling and creative writing. Depending on the amount of exposure to English, many will have worked out how and when to use their personal language-learning strategies and unconsciously know which of their strategies are the most effective for them. Some may even be able to verbalise the way they like to learn.
If teachers themselves were introduced to English as an academic, grammar-based subject, they may feel inclined to introduce it to young children this way, too: through an abstract, grammar-analysis method with little chance for interaction or dialogue in spoken English. Although teacher-led instruction can often feel more fulfilling for the teacher (because progress is easier to observe and assess) teacher-imposed methods not involving interaction may not be as lasting or motivating for the child. Many young children also find imposed grammatical content difficult to understand, and thus absorb, as they have not yet been made aware of the grammar they are using naturally in L1.
Non-native-speaker adults need to be careful not to let how they were taught English influence their teaching or support methods, since young children need to self-acquire English using their finely tuned language-learning strategies. Research continues to confirm that language acquisition is linked to a form of physical self-discovery related to the cognitive maturity of the young child, whose brain is still developing. This seems to be the case in some situations throughout adult life, too. For example, many people find it easier to learn how to change a car tyre by watching someone who knows, rather than reading a manual!
2.2.2 The teacher’s role
The teacher’s main role is to enable the child to use and develop his or her self-acquisition language-learning strategies, whilst also allowing autonomy to grow. The teacher’s role expands as the use of English becomes more advanced; they become involved in delegating responsibilities, organising more complex activities and in the introduction of formal literacy.
The teacher still remains the main source and model of spoken English. The teacher also now becomes responsible for the spoken and written English used in the introduction of formal English literacy skills. Through teacher-talk and tutor-talks, children have opportunities to absorb different styles of English and later to use the language. However, the child’s acquisition of English is limited to the language the teacher uses and to the content of picture books. In lessons where teachers use only the textbook without talking around it or including extra activities, the child’s acquisition is hindered by the low quality or quantity of input.
Textbook language plus some general management and game language is really not sufficient. Nor is it the right type of English input to enable the developing child to start talking about his or her interests or emotions, or to begin socialising and cooperating with other children. Children may need short periods of silence for self-reflection, but long periods of silence when there is no opportunity to listen and learn any English from the teacher (their main source of English input in the classroom) is a waste of children’s learning time.
The use of different voices, intonation and language styles (descriptive, reported speech, etc.) is important as a teacher responds to changes within the classroom, or sees a need to remotivate. A sudden, whispered Listen, children. Let’s think about … can surprise and interest the class and quickly get their attention!
Once children have got used to picking up English, they appear to have refined how to use their self-language-learning strategies. Teachers should not underestimate children’s ability to pick up English, and shouldn’t let learning preconceptions limit the amount of input they given the children. Children are innate language learners and always understand much more than they can say. If they feel an overload they know how to switch off and wait to be remotivated.
The art of a skilled teacher is getting the right balance by providing structure whilst supporting autonomy.
(Stewart)
The teacher’s main role is that of:
Motivator: using the Playful Approach to stimulate and restimulate positive interest in activities and formal literacy.
Modeller: using teacher-talk to aid understanding of emotional, social and classroom behaviour, as well as modelling new activities.
Mediator: introducing new challenges including tutor-talks to explain formal literacy.
Manager: planning lesson programmes, guided by the hidden syllabus and assessment but also following children’s interests; indicating revision needs.
Monitor: assessing children within lessons and weekly to check progress and the need to revisit learning (this includes the summing-up sessions at the end of each lesson in which achievements and future plans are discussed).
Within all these categories there is more advanced use of language to ensure acquisition, formal literacy learning and progress in speaking.
Encircling all five roles described above are Materials, the base for enabling activities and formal literacy experiences. Many extra materials have to be collected by the teacher or sometimes, at the teacher’s request, by the family.
2.3 The child’s expectations of the teacher
A young child expects a teacher to be:
friendly
reliable
caring
full of enthusiasm and positivity
a source of knowledge (or to know where to obtain information)
an example of fair play in games (not accepting any form of cheating)
just and fair in all personal comments and assessments
respectful of any work in which effort and improvement has been made
ready to co-share when a child or pair cannot manage alone.
The teacher–child relationship continues to evolve as the child develops and as the teacher gradually changes from leader to sharer or co-partner, using language and management routines in cooperation with the child until he or she is ready to lead alone. The degree of teacher support changes to match the child’s progress, well-being (physical and emotional) and desire to do things autonomously. Within a single lesson language support can range from teacher-initiated and teacher-led, to shared-support, to child-led and child-initiated.
Teacher-initiated
Teacher-led
Shared-support
Child-led
Child-initiated
Children have their own views on teachers and they openly tell parents who is their favourite teacher and why. Good relationships with the teacher and with their peers contribute to the intrinsic enjoyment that motivates children to learn English. A supportive relationship shows that the teacher values the children’s ideas. It also encourages children to initiate sometimes, using phrases like I have an idea. Can I tell you? Children need to be confident that initiating is allowed in the English classroom, since, in some cultures, it’s not always encouraged in L1 lessons.
It’s also important to remember that children learn more from each other than from the teacher, as, from a child’s point of view, peers are easier to copy than an adult.
Children learn strategies from watching each other, and are more likely to imitate what someone quite like themselves does rather than an adult.
(Stewart)
Teachers need to constantly review:
the changing teacher–child and teacher–class relationship and how it develops within the year
how interesting they themselves seem to children – are they holistically ‘switched on’ to the children’s world (including ‘screen world’)?
how they present new content to children and develop their desired independence (autonomy)
how they structure content to help make learning easier
how they manage activities so that children have opportunities to work together and learn from each other (for example, with one child ‘teaching’ and peers learning)
how they make children and families aware of progress.
The best motivation to learn a language is not an abstract liking of its beauty or utility, but a liking for the person who speaks it.
(Taeschner)
2.4 Enabling learning
… prepared input that alters according to the child’s needs and interests.
(Whitehead)
Planning language input within a programme and lesson is paramount for progress. Thought has to be given to which language to reuse and where, as well as when and how to introduce new language. In addition, some language input needs to be structured very precisely so that children can absorb it easily and later use it themselves. However, ‘planned language’ also has to be adaptable to include impromptu language, as the teacher tunes in to the immediate interests and needs of the children during a lesson.
Children need quality, planned English input (and repetition of this input) if they are to pick up English to their full potential. This potential is often underestimated in comparison to that of children who learn languages outside the classroom effectively, rarely making mistakes. A child does not find learning language difficult like an adult; if he or she says it is difficult, it is generally a reflection of what adults have said!
Throughout the language learning process, the ‘feel-good factor’ is vital for motivation and new learning. Children live in the present and their well-being can change from lesson to lesson. Teachers need to tune in to their emotional state at the beginning of each lesson and adapt to it. Sometimes, if children are moving into a new developmental stage, teachers need to adapt quickly to satisfy their eager curiosity to absorb new information and ideas.
Focus (Attention) is a skill. Attention is embedded in well-being.
(Goleman)
Holistic learning for young children of 6 to 9 years is innate, rapid and continuous, following recognisable, common developmental patterns. By the age of 8 or 9 the child has matured considerably and has gradually begun to feel and portray his or her own identity. The child is more knowledgeable and can do more things alone, confidently repeating and consolidating known skills or discovering and trying out new ones. A child of this age is an unconscious self-educator and likes to be treated with patience and understanding.
2.4.1 Modelling language
Modelling the use of new language, or re-modelling known language and extending it to match new content, is important for learning. Acquiring language through structured modelling involves:
teacher modelling (child watches and listens)
co-share modelling (teacher and child work together)
child modelling (leading the speaking, with teacher encouragement and support).
Modelling can be consolidated through playing quick games. Consider the 'Pass it on’ game:
‘Pass it on’ game
Start the game ‘Pass it on’ by passing a packet or object to one child, saying This is for you. Please take it.
The child takes it and gives it to another child repeating This is for you. Please take it.
The other child takes it as quickly as possible and says Oh! Thank you very much.
He or she then goes up to anyone in the class and says This is for you. Please take it.
The new child takes it as quickly as possible and says Oh! Thank you very much.
He or she then goes up to anyone in the class and says This is for you. Please take it.
This continues until the teacher says Stop.
The child who has the packet when the teacher says Stop is out of the game for one minute.
To begin with, the teacher has to support each child as he or she speaks to make sure the English is correct, but once the game is known it can be played with two or three different packets being passed round the room at once!
2.4.2 The inclusion of enabling activities
Enabling activities need to be closely linked to assessment if teachers are to take children to the next level and work within the child’s latest ‘zone of proximal development’ (‘ZPD’). Vygotsky defined ZPD as the gap between what children can do on their own without help, and what they can achieve with assistance from an adult or more able peer:
Teachers must plan effective, structured enabling activities to match the developing child’s need for new motivation and consolidation. Children have the ability to comment on their own work and are often aware of how well they and others have performed. Motivation plays an important role in achievement and to assess effectively teachers need to know how to react to growth and development of learners.
